HARVARD UNIVERSITY Library of the Museum of Comparative Zoology A-P'^ Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology AT HARVARD COLLEGE Vol. 102 MAINE BIRDS By Ralph S. Palmer Based largely on data gathered by Arthur Herbert Norton CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U. S. A. PRINTED FOR THE MUSEUM July, 1949 MUS. COMP. ZOOL UBRARY JUL 22 I9<*9 HARVARD UNIVERSITY Corrigenda to MAINE BIRDS Bull. Mus. Comparative Zoology, Harvard, vol. 102 (1949) P. 19, line 1 : Everett Smith's dates should be May 18, 1849 - Sept, 7, 1924. P. 32, 15th line from bottom: read . . . young out of burrows late, or trans- ients . . . P. 75 : subsequent information reveals that the Sheld Duck should have been listed as Erroneously recorded. P. 99, 17th line from bottom: delete parentheses around Stejneger. P. 131, lines 17-18 from top: the 300 mergansers seen by Weston were American, not Red'breasted. P. 133, 9th line from bottom: the Latin name of the Goshaw\ should be fol- lowed by (Wilson). P. 187, Lines 1042 from bottom: the eggs here mentioned are correctly iden- tified as Yellow Rail's (Bond). P. 254, 24th line from bottom: for Cow read Coat. P. 281, 22nd line from bottom: this paragraph should begin with quotation marks. P. 294, 16th line from bottom: for 1935 read 1835. P. 334, 6th line from bottom: for distance read distant. P. 398: the name of the Winter Wren should be Troglodytes troglodytes hiemalis (Vieillot). P. 414: data received after publication indicate that, by 1948, the Wood Thursh was breeding regularly at several York and Cumberland County localities and quite often at a number of other widely scat' tered points in Maine. Ralph S. Palmer New York State Museum Albany 1 , New York December 10, 1949 From Bulletin Maine Audubon Society Vol. 6, No. 1. January, 1950. Page 20. Maine Birds 1 By Ralph S. Palmer CONTENTS Page I. Preface 3 II. Introduction 5 1. General remarks 5 2. Localities 6 a. Reference works; place names 6 b. The seaward area 7 c. The land area 13 3. Plan of the work 14 a. Outline 14 b. Terms of occurrence 16 c. Terms of numbers 16 d. Treatment of processed literature 17 e. Persons referred to by last name 17 III. Acknowledgements 19 IV. Annotated list 20 V. Recapitulation 580 VI. Literature cited 581 VII. Index 634 Maps are on pages 8, 10 and 12 PREFACE Accumulation of data used in preparing the present report was begun about 1894 by the late Arthur H. Norton, 2 Curator of the Portland Society of Natural History. Besides tending to many other tasks, he continued to add to these data until a few weeks before his death on January 5, 1943, by which time he had a file of about 17,500 cards with perhaps 60,000 entries on them, filed by species and sub- species. Entries included references to literature, his own observations (the greater bulk), and data from numerous correspondents. Shortly before his death he made the following written statement: 30 Brentwood Street Portland, Maine December 17, 1942 The catalog of birds of Maine, on cards, and the accessory manuscripts belonging thereto, which are at present the property of Arthur H. Norton, I 1 Published with the aid of a special gift from Mr. G. R. Agassiz. 2 For biographical sketches of Mr. Norton see: Auk, 60: 315-317 (1943) and Rhodora, 45: 217-220 (1943). 4 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology recommend to go to the University of Maine Library under the care of Ralph S. Palmer of Vassar College, because his methods of work have been so nearly similar to my own. In the event of his loss in the armed services, it is recom- mended that the above mentioned property be put under the care of Howard L. Mendall and be deposited as above stated. There are four (4) copies of this document. [signed] Arthur H. Norton My visits and correspondence with Mr. Norton began in 1929, after I had completed grammar school, and continued into December, 1942. Since this latter date, and especially since the end of Naval service in 1945, I have added to the file about 3,000 entries, selected from over five times as many, from the literature, various notebooks of my own and others, and extensive correspondence. This file, plus a few short and incomplete drafts of manuscript of Norton's on some water birds, form the main basis of the present report. The Committee of the American Ornithologists' Union that is working on a revision of the A.O.U. Check-List is revising the 'common' names of many birds. With the knowledge that the decisions made by the Committee up to the time this is written may be altered before the Check-List goes to press, I generally have given the proposed 'new' names. The 'old' common names are used in the text; the 'new' are given only in the headings. In cases where the 'new' differ markedly from the 'old,' both are given. An article by Woodcock (1942) is quoted with permission of the copyright owners, the American Association for the Advancement of Science. This manuscript was submitted for publication on May 29, 1948. Because of delays in arranging for its publication, I have had time to make a few alterations and to add important data on over forty species. The revised manuscript was submitted on November 17, 1948. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 5 INTRODUCTION GENERAL REMARKS This volume is intended to be an historical review of the bird life of Maine. No Maine list has been published for 40 years and none whatever has appeared which emphasized ecological aspects and changes known to have occurred in the avifauna. For the sake of brevity, certain material already in print has not been repeated here. Local names, for example, were given by Knight (1908b) and only a few are included in this report. In attempting to be brief, I have, in some instances, possibly sacrificed a certain degree of accuracy. Thus, to state that the young of a species are fed "by regurgitation" does not specify which of the three variants of this method of feeding is involved, and in some cases two of these may be used at different stages of development in the young of a single species. There is little point in trying to present detailed and complete life histories of all species in a volume meant to be portable. On the other hand, I have avoided the use of a telegraphic style of writing, even though, by using it, much more material might have been included in the same amount of space. Such a style is not suitable for a volume which has many quotations of varying length. The presentation of material differs markedly from the way Norton conceived a Maine list. He would have written a briefer one, disposing of many birds with a single paragraph at most, and seldom allowing more than a page of typescript for any bird. Norton never was able to concentrate long on any one project, so divided was his time by his many duties. He had practically no aid of any kind, even having to do the janitorial work himself. He was discouraged at times because he felt that interest in a revised work on Maine birds was lacking. I once asked him when he thought his proposed list would be ready for publication; he said he never expected to complete it, but would keep adding data to his files as time went on. The result was no manuscript in finished form, but a great amount of information on cards. It has seemed advisable to place much of this material on record as soon as possible. My own interests have differed from Norton's in some respects. They have included certain ethnological and folklore aspects of local ornithology, also behavior, ecology and conservation to a greater de- gree. Since 1937, I have searched through hundreds of volumes of journals (sometimes duplicating work done by Norton) and, by this means and through extensive correspondence, have been able to broaden the scope of material covered. This approach has enabled me to check on the reliability, for example, of some of the statements in 6 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology sporting journals, and to link the proper personages with some of the pseudonyms formerly used by contributors. As a general rule, those birds that have been studied most ex- tensively in Maine receive the most space in this report. I have not included a prefatory historical review of ornithological work done in the state. It is omitted partly for the sake of brevity, but chiefly because its preparation would have necessitated a study of material widely scattered in many museums and collections, and neither time nor funds were available for this. Further, there are no general summaries of migration, ecology, life zones, flora, climate, geology, etc., because: 1) in these matters Maine should be considered in its relation to the rest of New England and at least all the land area south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 2) I have not been able to study such matters sufficiently to arrive at relevant generalizations. As to life zones, in the C. H. Merriam sense of the term, probably the faunal map used as a frontispiece by Knight (1908b) is as accurate as can be made, allowing for the fact that one should substitute "Alpine" where he used "Hudsonian." So-called 'cultural' changes which have occurred since the advent of Europeans have made pro- found differences in the flora and fauna of the state. This is reflected clearly in changes in bird distribution. In the face of these known changes, the life zone concept and some of its successors, as applied to birds, are useful but inadequate. Further study may yet lead to a better basis for treating bird distribution. LOCALITIES The user of this report will find it advisable to study the maps on pages 8, 10, and 12. When citing records, localities shown on the maps are, generally, referred to without mention of the counties wherein they are situated. These particular localities are mentioned frequently. For other places, the county is given the first time that the locality is mentioned under any one bird. Reference Works; Place Names In preparing this report, the following sources dealing with geo- graphical localities have been particularly useful: The revised (1944) atlas of Maine General Highway Maps, prepared by the State Highway Commission, has been used more than any other single source, being a convenient means of locating towns, townships, and ranges. Topographic quadrangle maps of the U. S. Dept. of Interior, Geological Survey, are available for all of the state except parts of Aroostook, Somerset, Piscataquis, and Penobscot Counties. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 7 County maps, published by Prentiss and Carlisle, of Bangor, were useful for that part of the state not covered by Geological Survey topographic quadrangle maps. The latest U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey chart, West Quoddy Head to New York, was used for the Gulf of Maine. Attwood's recent (1946) gazetteer has many uses. Anyone who consults early maps, county or other local histories, and other docu- ments, will find old names and their present equivalents, if any, in this volume. Naturalists should note particularly Attwood's section on repetition of place names, also the data on state parks, the National Park, national recreation and demonstration areas, national forests, state game preserves, sanctuaries, and game management areas. The faunal lists are, for the most part, rather out-of-date. The bird list was based mainly on Knight (1908b). When using material from early voyages or histories, dealing with the period before Maine's present political boundaries were es- tablished, I have cited data for within the present political boundaries unless otherwise stated (but note discussion of Machias Seal Island below). In general, I have followed the local practice of using an "s" and omitting the apostrophe from possessive place names, i.e. Cousins rather than Cousin's or Cousin Island. Local practice in this matter differs from the 'official' labels in most atlases and on many maps. The Seaward Area The seaward area is determined by physical boundaries and one must begin by defining the Gulf of Maine (see p. 8). This consists of the oceanic bight from Nantucket on the west to Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, on the east. The shoreline includes those of eastern Massa- chusetts, of New Hampshire, Maine, and parts of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. According to Bigelow's report (1926: 6-7) on the plankton of the gulf, the land boundaries "are continued offshore by Nantucket Shoals on the one side and Browns Bank on the other, which roughly demark the boreal waters of the gulf from the warmer coastal water off southern New England, on the one hand, and the lower sea temperatures along southern Nova Scotia, on the other. . . The reader will note that, as defined here [to about the 150-fathom line], the Gulf of Maine includes the whole of the offshore rim formed by Georges and Browns Banks and the two main deep channels — Eastern and Northern — that pierce it." In the present report I have chosen to draw the 100-fathom line, which is close to that for 150 fathoms, because the former reveals the bottom contours within the gulf in better fashion. The seaward rim 8 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology MAINE Z*.. <=d GEORGES BANK ..30-' 4f NANTUCKET SHOALS At ''«*, .30" o -••■30- .."..** V 3 0) M o — -Q >> J3 -a a> a a +j 3 O a> b<) fl at +j o a • >m M -u -*^ & +j i- a. -3 3 0) rfj ,3 — I +J ro a 03 • *H O -o u 01 0) T3 -3 3 +J CJ 3 CI CJ 0) oo fs (* -4-J 0> S3 -t-5 c3 ,fl & a) 03 be o "3 n 0) m '3 H"! 3 O Cj t- 3 a> a en i— i Ft 43 oS fi -• ' , — * / o / ** < O / r A R S T OK W PRESQUE o- / t 1 ISLE / / / s ) -o t s } O > -4 > MT. O KATAHDIN TJ * >- ^ V Si ^ HOOSEHEAD o CD 1 r\ <« LAKE l> V / 3* GO JO c z o \ i CALAIS* r LAKE UMBAGOG I n BANGOR iia WASHINGTON HANCOCK *• L KENNEBEC u» AUGUSTA Andros- coggin WALDO (LINCOLN* «■ TC> * 0"-. KNOX [CUMBERLAND, N f YORK i I i °^Q ^ V Fig. 3. Maine County Map. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 13 The Maine coast has its eastern boundary at West Quoddy Head, where Cobscook Bay enters the Grand Manan Channel. The Land Area The area of the state, including islands, is, by summation: land, 19,462,301 acres (30,410 square miles); inland water, 925,959 acres (1,447 square miles); and bog or swamp, 710,552 acres (1,110 square miles). The total is 20,388,260 acres, or 31,857 square miles. These figures are from Attwood (1946: 18) who pointed out that the sum- mation is about two per cent in error and that the accepted total figure, obtained by quadrilateral measurement, is larger, being 20,839,680 acres, or 32,562 square miles. The land area (see map on p. 12) is determined by the political boundary, which is strictly an arbitrary feature in some places, but follows conspicuous topographic features in others. In Oxford County the line passes through Lake Umbagog, the larger water area being in New Hampshire. In utilizing William Brewster's valuable report on "The Birds of the Lake Umbagog Region of Maine," I have cited occurrence (specimen and sight records) for the Maine side unless otherwise stated, but often have disregarded the political boundary when giving his data on habits. Ornithologically, Umbagog is one of the best known localities in Maine, while Moosehead, which is a much larger and more impressive body of water, is very poorly known. In Washington County the St. Croix River forms part of the boundary demarking Maine from New Brunswick. The region of Calais, Washington County, adjacent New Brunswick, and the waters and islands at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, are particularly note- worthy, for it was here that George A. Boardman (bom Feb. 5, 1818; died Jan. 11, 1901) did most of his collecting. He came to Calais with his parents in 1828 and lived there until December 9, 1843; he then moved across the river to Milltown, New Brunswick, where he lived until 1881; thereafter he traveled a great deal, returning occasionally to Calais, where he settled permanently in the spring of 1884. During most of his active years of collecting he lived on the New Brunswick side. His correspondence sometimes was headed Milltown, New Brunswick, sometimes Calais, Maine, sometimes Milltown, Maine (a hamlet in Calais), but more often just Milltown. His printed labels read: "Explorations in or near New Brunswick, George A. Boardman, Calais, Maine." Occasionally he added date and locality to a label, but often did not record these. The data on his eggs were equally poor. It is easy to understand how persons who read the printed word "Calais" on the labels have wrongly stated the locality for some of his specimens, most of which undoubtedly came from New Brunswick. 14 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Some of the data that he did record are now lost, his journal has not been located, and at this late date one cannot even be certain whether some of his printed statements were based on hearsay reports or concrete data, and whether reference was to Maine, New Brunswick, or both places. Several other localities need brief mention. Mt. Katahdin has an extensive area on it which is above tree line. The flora of this Alpine zone is well known compared to the fauna, but further study of both is needed. There are smaller treeless areas on other Maine mountains, about which even less is known. Scarborough, on the coast of Cumberland County, is noteworthy because of the great amount of shorebird and wildfowl shooting done there in former times, especially as recorded in the shooting journals of several persons. Merrymeeting Bay, Sagadahoc County, is treated as inland waters. The water is brackish rather than salt, even though the tide is a prominent feature. It is a meeting-place of several rivers, with a common outlet — the Kennebec River — to the sea. A few typically marine wildfowl have been noted at the bay. Bangor and Brewer are at the head of tidewater on the Penobscot River. The famous Bangor Salmon Pool, below the Bangor-Brewer dam, is considered as inland waters, although certain marine ducks and gulls have been observed there in the colder months when the river was frozen for miles downstream. PLAN OF THE WORK Outline I have aimed at including all known birds of the state, including fossil, extinct, extirpated, and introduced species. A few others are noted for various reasons. Omitted are birds which have been recorded and stated, at the same time or later, to have been escaped captives. Omitted also are one or two species whose occurrence has been sug- gested, but for which there are no known records. Quite a few Euro- pean or other foreign birds were listed erroneously by early writers as occurring in Maine. There seems to be no need to list these. A problem calling for cautious treatment was whether to infer that certain birds which occurred inland in areas adjacent to Maine, had also occurred in inner offshore waters of the Gulf of Maine. For example, one petrel species, not known from our marine waters, has occurred inland in New Hampshire as a hurricane visitant, but the hurricane may have reached this area overland and not via the inner part of the gulf. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 15 Where I have given all records, these follow a brief statement of status and are listed by one of two methods. When there is an ap- parent or actual change of status over the years, records are listed chronologically by year in most instances. When there has been no apparent change, I usually have listed them seasonally. When full treatment is accorded any bird, the divisions used are as follows : Summary of status. Spring migration occurrence with extreme dates and, where possible, dates between which most birds are seen. Fall migration occurrence, with dates as above. This precedes spring occurrence in the case of winter residents and winter visitants. Flight years or incursions, the former denoting a period of unusual numbers within a season of regular occurrence (years of marked scarcity, when known, also placed under this heading), and the latter denoting an invasion in numbers, of birds that may or may not occur regularly, lasting for part of a season or longer. Breeding and/or summer, the former term being used for breeding birds only and including available Maine data (which, when necessary, are supplemented by data from outside the state and are so indicated) to provide information on nest, number of eggs, laying season, incu- bation and fledging periods, and number of broods per year. Ad- mittedly this is sketchy, but lack of space forbids expansion. The term "summer" is used for non-breeders when data warrant fuller treatment than given under summary of status. The two terms are used together when there are data of interest on the non-breeding birds of a species breeding in the state. If a bird has ceased breeding in Maine, former breeding is discussed under Remarks. Winter status. Ecology includes comments on habitat and often on methods of se- curing food, also sociability and other traits — if such may aid in briefly defining the relation of the species to its environment. These data, unless otherwise stated, are for within the political boundaries of the state and/or marine waters within the scope of this work. Remarks include historical changes in status, food, economic status, behavior, early records, and any other matter deemed worthy of mention. Scientific names of food items are just as published originally by authors, the nomenclature not being brought up to date. In giving first Maine records of many species, I have not used bird names listed in various Indian dictionaries. The manuscript of the Rasles diction- ary, for example, which was begun in 1691 and finished within the next 30 years, although not published until much later, contains (Rasles, 1833: 383-384) quite a good list of bird names used by the Norridge- 16 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology wock Abnakis. Comments on taxonomy, extralimital records, and corrections of erroneous published statements usually come at the end. Terms of Occurrence Whereas other self-explanatory terms also are used, the basic termi- nology is here defined: Resident — occurring regularly in the same general area throughout the year. Otherwise the term is qualified to "summer resident" (im- plies breeding, but may include non-breeders), "non-breeding summer resident," and "winter resident." "Locally migrant" or other quali- fying terms are used if the species is not sedentary. Transient — passing through, en route between a summer and winter residence, both of which are outside of the area concerned. Visitant — being present for a short time only, the proper qualifying terms being used to indicate season or seasons of occurrence. Introduced — an exotic bird, liberated by man within the state, or outside of the state and having extended its range to Maine. Extirpated — driven from the state by man, although still extant elsewhere. Extinct — none now alive anywhere. Fossil — which is self explanatory. Hypothetical — unsatisfactorily recorded for any one of a number of reasons. I have not adhered to the rule of relegating to this category all species reported, but for which no Maine specimen has been ex- amined by a qualified ornithologist. In a number of cases, observers with long experience have seen birds in the state which hardly could be confused with other species and have published these observations. A few hypothetical birds are here first recorded, justifiable to Norton or myself (or both of us) by the importance of the data and knowledge of the observer. Admittedly this is subjective treatment, but after careful study I have been unable to formulate a satisfactory rule to follow that would cover all cases with equal fairness. Terms of Numbers If there are very few records (usually four or less), the number of these is stated and the records given. In other cases, although there are instances where I have used other terms which are self-explanatory, the following are the basic categories : Rare — average of one record in six to ten years. Occasional — average of one record in three to five years. Uncommon — a few present every year or nearly so. Common — present in such numbers that one may find several in a day in the proper habitat. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 17 Numerous — present in such numbers that one may find many in a day in the proper habitat. Abundant — present in such numbers that one may find a great many in a day in the proper habitat. If a bird fits between any two of these categories, proper qualifying terms are added. For example, to state that a bird is rather common places it between uncommon and common as defined above. Treatment of Processed Literature A problem of importance has been to devise a satisfactory method of dealing with reports presented in the mimeographed Bulletin of New England Bird Life [Oct. 15, 1936 to Dec, 1944], its photolitho- graphed successor, Records of New England Birds [Jan., 1945- ], and the first two volumes, which were mimeographed, of the Bulletin of the Maine Audubon Society [Jan., 1945 to Oct., 1946]. I have catalogued Maine data in the first and last and in the second through October, 1947. These various bulletins are not organized for brief citation, data included have not always been carefully screened to remove questionable reports, and errors have been made in placing material on record. Therefore I have not cited these, which hardly can be dealt with as published material. My method has been to contact the observer, in those cases where reports appeared to be of sufficient value to warrant attention, and check the matter directly. Some contributors very kindly have loaned me their daily journals. I have tried to contact all persons whose data were used in the present volume, to obtain verification and permission to use these. In a few instances, reports were incorporated in the manuscript and then, probably because of changes in address during the war years, I have been unable to locate the person concerned up to the time of submitting this manuscript for publication. In these few cases (less than fifteen), I have taken the trouble to consult the editor of the report concerned. All reports in these bulletins have been considered, which has resulted in a large proportion being discarded. Persons Referred to by Last Name The following persons, whose unpublished records were obtained through Norton or directly, are hereinafter referred to by last name only, whether in citing published or unpublished data of theirs, as their names are mentioned often. For example, of the several Smiths or three Grosses, first initials always are given for all except the one whose name occurs in this list: Bond, James [Jan. 4, 1900- ]. Has done field work mainly in 18 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Hancock County, yearly since 1925, and in no year earlier than May 10 or later than November 10. Chamberlain, Glen David [June 28, 1903- ]. Has kept migration records at Presque Isle since about 1931. Cruickshank, Allan Dudley [Aug. 29, 1907- ]. Has spent much time in summer in the Muscongus Bay region since about 1936. Eckstorm, Paul Frederick [May 18, 1896-July 5, 1943]. Of Brewer, the son of Mrs. F. H. Eckstorm, and grandson of M. Hardy, the latter listed below ; traveled a great deal in the state, collecting eggs ahd skins. Gross, Alfred Otto [April 8, 1883- ]. Has taught at Bowdoin College, Brunswick, since 1912, and has published numerous life history studies based largely on Maine data. Hardy, Manly [Nov. 11, 1832-Dec. 9, 1910]. Of Brewer, noted fur buyer and naturalist who had a large bird collection. Many of his journals were obtained on loan from his daughter, the late Mrs. Eckstorm. Harris, William George Fowle [May 31, 1905- ]. Of Dorchester, Massachusetts ; collected with Eckstorm, and has continued to collect in the state since the latter's death. Haven, Herbert Morris West [Dec. 16, 1885-Feb. 26, 1949]. Of Portland ; has recorded data on ornithological matters of interest for many years. Loring, Caleb Gould, jr. [Oct. 2, 1820-Aug. 28, 1868]. Hunted at Scarborough and elsewhere in Cumberland County, ran a shooting lodge at Scarborough, and kept a detailed shooting journal from 1842 to 1854. Mendall, Howard Lewis [Nov. 21, 1909- ]. Leader of the Co- operative Wildlife Research Unit at the University of Maine; has published many papers on Maine birds since 1935, and has supplied many unpublished data. Norton, Arthur Herbert [April 19, 1870-Jan. 5, 1943]. His files of data form the main basis of the present work. Palmer, Ralph Simon [June 13, 1914- ]. Formerly of Brunswick; author of the present work. Pillsbury, Edward Blanchard [Oct. 22, 1874-Sept. 30, 1940]. Hunted in Cumberland County, mostly at Scarborough and vicinity, and kept a shooting journal from 1891 to 1912. Rackliff, Frederick [May 2, 1851-July 8, 1935]. Of Sprucehead, South Thomaston, Knox County; a keen observer and collector of seafowl, supplied Norton with many data and specimens. Rich, Walter Herbert [Oct. 12, 1866-Oct. 19, 1948]. Of Falmouth; author, sportsman, long-time employee of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, and successor to Norton at the Portland Society of Natural History. Rogers, Alpheus Groves [1843-June 14, 1913]. Hunted mostly in Cumberland County, and kept a shooting journal from 1865 to 1912. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 19 Smith, Everett [Oct. 13, 1856-March 20, 1941]. Of Portland; author of a list of Maine birds in Forest and Stream and other bird papers, and contributor of much unpublished material to Norton's files. Spinney, Herbert Lyndon [Sept. 25, 1862-Nov. 25, 1943]. Of Bath; collected many birds in his younger years, published numerous brief notes, and, while in the Lighthouse Service, kept a valuable journal of his observations at Seguin from 1893 to May, 1907. Weston, Robert [Dec. 21, 1889- ]. Of Brewer; has kept records of his observations in Maine for about ten years, his data on the smaller land birds being especially useful. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mendall and Bond read the entire annotated list, and furnished many useful suggestions and added data. I wish to express my sincere appreciation for their valuable assistance. Mr. L. T. Ibbotson, li- brarian at the University of Maine, has been most cooperative in loaning Norton's files and certain books for the period during which this manuscript was in preparation. I owe many thanks for courtesies extended me by persons at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, especially Mr. J. L. Peters, who helped with nomenclatural matters, and members of the library staff. My wife, Eunice Nelson Palmer, has helped in mariy ways, such as verifying references, and typing the entire manuscript, much of it at least three times. Some field data were gathered while expenses were paid from a small grant from the Coe Research Fund at the University of Maine. Living and travel expenses during the summer of 1946, when visiting libraries and writing part of the first draft, were paid, in part, from a grant from the Phebe Beedle Fund at Vassar College. Stenographic supplies, postage, expressage on files, and cost of interlibrary loans, have come mainly out of the annual budget allotted from the Putnam Conservation Fund to the Department of Zoology at Vassar College. I wish to express my appreciation for having received these necessary financial aids. All other expenses have been borne by me personally. Many persons volunteered to submit data on learning that a publi- cation on Maine birds was in preparation. Many others, and also institutions, have supplied information on request. Several pages would be required for listing all these sources here; most are mentioned later when their data are cited. My thanks are due these persons and institutions for assistance kindly given. I am solely responsible for the manner in which data received have been used, as well as for the manner of utilization of numerous valuable suggestions from those who have read the manuscript or portions of it. 20 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology ANNOTATED LIST Family COLYMBIDAE Greater Common Loon Colymbus immer immer (Briinnich) Summer resident, common on fresh water lakes and ponds inland, decreasing to absent near the coast and local in northern York County, and a few non-breeders occurring on salt water; transient in spring and fall, rather numerous coastwise and common inland; winter resident, fairly common on salt water. Spring. Transients have been noted from April 20 to May 16 (Norton). Fall. This migratory movement occurs throughout October and into early November. On October 27, 1927, Norton saw a scattered flock of 36 of these birds in Jericho Bay near Isle au Haut, Knox County. Breeding and summer. Of 12 nests found about northern Maine lakes in 1877 and 1878, there were great differences in structure, "some being quite elaborate, others a mere scooped-out cavity in the bog or sandbank. . . One nest was the mere surface of a muddy bog that was floating on the surface of the water, but only partially de- tached" (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 2: 449). Most nests are sizeable heaps of vegetation, including some sticks, near the water's edge. Eggs (usually two, rarely one or three) usually are laid in May and the first three weeks of June. A bird was found incubating as late as August 10, 1908, at Sebago Lake, Cumberland County (Nor- ton). Knight (1908b: 26) gave the incubation period as "very close to 29 days," but this is probably too short. Young have been seen from the first week in July on, and on salt water in Casco Bay by August 25 (Norton), which might indicate that six weeks or longer are required to attain flying age. At Onawa, Piscataquis County, Terris Moore watched loons through a telescope from 50 to 100 yards distance over a period of several seasons, from his cabin, and noted: 1) when the young are small, the adults fish for them, 2) only one of the adults, believed to be the female, gives the food to the chick or chicks, 3) if one of the adults, believed to be the male, catches a fish, he gives it to the mate who gives it to the chick, and 4) when the chick is somewhat older, the female kills or cripples the fish and puts it down near the chick, so that the latter picks it up. One brood is raised yearly. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 21 Evidence that this species breeds on salt water is unsatisfactory. A few non-breeding loons, sometimes in small loose flocks, are seen along the coast in summer. II 'inter. It is my belief that most or all of the winter population comes from points outside the state. Perhaps a few that linger late inland merely move to the nearest salt water. At this season loons are scattered the length of the coast, in inshore waters, and sometimes about outer islands. Sometimes a few birds linger too late on fresh water and get caught by the freeze-up. Boardman (1874b) gave an account of the finding of many loons in a small area of water kept free of ice by the birds, at Big Lake, Washington County. About 30 were killed with sticks as they jumped out on the ice and floundered about, unable to take wing. Ecology. This is an inhabitant of lakes and larger ponds when there is open water; at other times it is a marine bird. While this species feeds to a great extent near the bottom, it is doubtful that this is wholly the case. Like the Double-crested Cormorant, it shows no marked preference for bottom character, feeding over rocky, gravelly, sandy or muddy bottoms, off the outer shores or in the sheltered coves and arms of the sea, as well as in inland waters. Remarks. "The Loon has always been regarded as a destroyer of game-fish and for that reason was not included in the list of those protected by law. It certainly is almost, if not quite, exclusively a fish- eater, and probably, in small, inland ponds, where trout are small, devours a good many. But in Sebago Lake and other large lakes my observations lead me to believe that it does little or no harm. In most large lakes salmon and trout are mostly too large for the Loon to trouble and it restricts its diet to the smaller surface-swimming and shore fishes, such as smelts, chubs, etc. In Sebago Lake these are so numerous that it can do no harm in that direction" (Kendall, 1907: 86). "The possibility that the Loon may render a service to conservers of game-fishes, by holding in check in some degree the destroyers of fish- eggs, or in destroying the fishes affected with contagious gill-fungus and other diseases, has never been given consideration. . . Unques- tionably it is the weaker specimens of the species eaten that constitute the greater part of the Loon's diet. On the other hand some, as the suckers, are very destructive to the finest game-species, eating large quantities of their eggs, while themselves of little value as food or game" (Norton. 1915a: 71). This species has a very wide distribution. Attempts to correlate size with portions of the range are not wholly successful, for much variation has been found. This has been noted by Macgillivray for Britain, Witherby for Europe, L. Bishop for North Dakota and the 22 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology west, and by Smith (1882-83: 223) for Maine. The matter is compli- cated further by birds wandering far from their 'normal' range outside the breeding season. The following Maine records give some idea of the variation in weights: a bird of the year taken in late October, 1929, at Merrymeet- ing Bay, weighed 5 pounds (Haven); one reported by Hardy (1900) weighed 6 pounds; a bird of the year found dead at Scarborough weighed 8}4 pounds (Miss I. Powell) ; an adult male shot on August 1, 1941, on Chamberlain Lake, Piscataquis County, weighed 12}^ pounds (Palmer); one reported by Anonymous (1896a) weighed 13j^ pounds; one taken on April 19, 1S99, near China, Kennebec County, weighed 14 pounds (C. H. Morrell, lS99b); and one taken in 1881 in Penobscot Bay weighed 17 pounds and 10 ounces (Buker, ISSIb). Norton noted that molting birds are to be seen from about March 20 to late April and in the latter half of September. Occasionally a bird in winter plumage is seen in June or July. On the coast, when the weather is changing, these birds are particu- larly noisy. Knight (1908b: 27) quoted the fishermen's saying: "The Loons are trying to blow up an easterly." Those interested in the voice of the loon should read the descriptions of it by Hubbard (1883 : 86-90) and Brewster (1924: 49-50). One of a pair, perhaps the male, frequently is seen dashing about on the water in May or even later. In early August I have witnessed a number of particularly severe fights between loons, on Chamberlain and on Eagle Lake in Piscataquis County. These always seemed to start when a bird or a pair would attempt to come near another pair or family group. By September most of this is past and the more usual sight on lakes is a line of migrating loons, sometimes as many as 15, swimming in single file, and spaced from 10 to 30 yards apart. Members of a pair usually dive within a few seconds of each other and emerge in the same manner. When half a dozen birds are seen diving, there is likely to be nearly or twice that number, feeding in a loose flock, with diving and rising to the surface so timed that only a few are in sight at once. If they become mildly alarmed, diving is suspended until all have surfaced, when they begin swimming away. In coastal waters, Norton recorded a series of submergences as follows: in water of 4 feet to a possible 30, the range of 26 dives was % x /l to 60 seconds; in the strong current of a channel, 2 dives were 35 and 413^ seconds; and on a sandy bottom beyond the breakers, in 10 to 15 feet of water, nine dives ranged from 193^ to 51 seconds (6 being 36 to 42) and on another occasion at the same spot, two 50-second dives. A 60-second submergence in about 30 feet of water was noted near Isle au Haut in November. From observations at Lake Umbagog, PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 23 Brewster (1924: 47) presented evidence which indicates that sometimes a loon will go nearly straight down for perhaps 25 feet. Knight (1908b: 25) estimated "far under" 1,000 pairs of loons nesting in Maine. Although it is difficult to make such estimates, I feel safe in stating that if he was correct, the bird has increased since his time. The population, according to Mendall, has appeared re- markably static in the past 15 years. Lesser Common Loon Colymbus immer elasson Bishop Tioo records for specimens referred to this race. A bird in winter plumage was taken on December 6, 1881, at Cutler, Washington County, and is now in the N. A. Eddy collection at Yale University. The second specimen, a female in nuptial plumage, was taken on May 22, 1888, at North Haven, Knox County, and is in the Everett Smith collection in the Portland Society of Natural History (Norton). Remarks. The first specimen was recorded by Smith (1882-83 : 223) as Colymbus arcticus, the occurrence of which Knight (1897d: 134) discredited, but later reinstated (1908b: 27). Then it was referred to G. arctica pacifica by Hersey (1917: 285), and later to G. i. elasson by L. Bishop (1921:366). Considering the variation in size of Colymbus immer, I question the advisability of recognizing any subspecies, although elasson is still (November, 1948) retained for inclusion in the next edition of the A. 0. U. Check-List. Pacific Arctic Loon Colymbus arctica pacifica (Lawrence) Hypothetical. One was reported seen on May 16, 1947, at McCurdy Pond in Bremen, Lincoln County, by C. F. Lyman, jr. (1947). Red-throated Loon Colymbus stcllata (Pontoppidan) Transient, common in spring and fall along the coast and rare in fall on fresh water; non-breeding summer resident, occasional on salt water and two fresh water records; winter resident, uncommon on inshore marine waters. Spring. Norton's records indicate migration as occurring from 24 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology April 13 to May 24. On May 27, 1879, thirteen birds were seen flying together at Scarborough (Smith). Fall. Migration takes place from about September 22 to November 17 (Norton). Slimmer. I find 18 records from June 5 to September 9, evenly distributed between these dates, from 1878 to 1946. Of these, two are for fresh water, as follows: one seen, July 4, 1926, in the mouth of Harriseeket River, Cumberland County (Rich) ; and one, June 6, and two, June 10, 1945, at Pocamoonshine Lake, Princeton, Washington County (J. M. Dudley). Winter. At this season these birds are sociable and, when present in Maine, are usually found in small loose flocks in inshore waters. Ecology. This is an inshore bird on salt water, feeding in depths of about 6 to 40 feet. Inland occurrences have been on lakes, and some- times on ponds too small to accommodate the Common Loon. Remarks. This loon rarely is seen in Maine in nuptial plumage. Albinism has been noted as follows: one shot, June 22, 1896, at Small Point, Sagadahoc County, which was pure white except for a few brown spots on the back (Spinney in Knight, 1897a); a pure white bird taken in December, 1900, in Casco Bay (Knight, 1908b: 28); the July 4 record cited above under Summer was an albino; and one having unmarked plumage and whitish bill and feet, shot near Stonington, Hancock County, and brought to Norton on October 28, 1936. As far as I can determine, the transient and winter population is about the same as in the 1870's, during Everett Smith's shooting days, but their numbers apparently were fewer for a decade or two at the turn of the century. Family PODICIPITIDAE Holboell's Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena holboelli (Reinhardt) Transient, in spring and fall, uncommon to sometimes common on salt water and of lesser occurrence on inland waters; winter resident, uncommon to sometimes common on salt water and in lesser numbers inland until driven out by ice; of rare summer occurrence inland and one salt water record. Spring. Although data are inadequate, the spring movement ap- parently occurs from late March into early May. On May 21, 1897, Brewster (1924: 35-36) saw a pair in nuptial plumage on the New Hampshire side of Lake Umbagog. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 25 Fall. Birds begin to appear on salt water about September 23 (very rarely in August), and numbers increase through October and into November. Early dates are for one seen on August 18, 1941, in Muscongus Bay, and three seen on September 7, 1936, at Scarborough (A. W. Kuschke, jr.). Summer. In addition to rare inland occurrences, one was seen on July 1, 1919, at Isle au Haut, Knox County, by Dr. Chandler Foot (Forbush, 1925:7). Winter. Scattered individuals or small groups are found the length of the coast in inshore waters, and occasionally, individuals are seen several miles from the nearest land. Inland, during December, Janu- ary, and February, it is not unusual for these birds to be picked up from the snow. Apparently they linger about open water till frozen out and, forced to move, lack the ability to make their way to other open water. Ecology. On salt water this grebe is found both in sheltered and fairly exposed waters. Inland it occurs on bodies of water varying in size from small streams to the largest lakes. It is a sub-surface feeder, probably getting most of its food near the bottom, in under 30 feet of water. It sometimes associates with the Horned Grebe in mi- grations and winter. Remarks. The former breeding of this bird on the New Brunswick side of the St. Croix River seems well attested by Boardman. In a letter dated August 25, 1869, he mentioned "a little muddy lake[?Ken- drick Lake] about two miles" from where he lived in Milltown, New Brunswick, "where several kinds of grebes breed. . . . The Horned and Dab Chick are most common, while a few Red-necked breed" (Boardman, 1903 : 242). In view of the ecological requirements of this bird, however, his statement (ibid. 315) that it "breeds on islands," if he meant those at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, is open to question. Perhaps he meant islands in ponds. On April 19, 1941, at Thunder Hole on Mt. Desert Island, Norton observed one of these grebes alternately feeding and preening. It made several dives of long duration, once submerging for 78 seconds in water of unknown depth. It is well known that the gizzards of grebes generally contain some feathers. The gizzard of an unusually fat female of the present species, shot December 23, 1896, in Knox County waters, was full of feathers (Norton). 26 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus Linnaeus Erroneous report. This European grebe was accredited to the North American fauna for many years. Boardman (1862: 131) included it in his list for the Calais region, and Samuels (1867: 560) repeated the error. Later, however, T. M. Brewer (1875:454) pointed out that Boardman had never seen the bird and occurrence in North America was doubtful. Boardman probably would not have listed it had he not found that Audubon treated it as a North American bird. Horned Grebe Podiceps auritus Linnaeus Transient, common (sometimes numerous to abundant) in spring and fall coastwise, and uncommon to sometimes abundant in fall inland; winter resident, common to abundant coastwise; non-breeding summer resident, rare on salt water and inland. Spring. Migration begins in late March, with the main movement in April, and continues into May with two records for May 16, of different years, at Scarborough. Fall. Some years a few birds arrive along the coast the last week in September, but ordinarily they do not occur regularly until after October 6. Migration extends into November. An early record is for a bird seen September 19 to 22, 1946, at Jackman, Somerset County (W. Foerster). Helmuth (1920: 256) saw "nearly 500" in the harbor at Machiasport, Washington County, on November 1, 1917. For Lake Umbagog, Brewster (1924: 37-41) gave October 2 to 25 occurrences, with interesting observations on habits of migrants. Summer. Single individuals have been seen on salt water in June, July, and August. For a discussion of breeding, see Remarks. Winter. These grebes are found singly, in pairs, or small flocks all along the coast, including harbors, about islands, and off beaches. The population varies considerably from year to year. A great many are seen some winters off the York County beaches. Ecology. On salt water this species shows no preference for bottom type, feeding over sandy, muddy, or rocky bottoms. It generally feeds in rather shallow water, about 5 to 25 feet in depth, and often travels with the tide. Transients occasionally are seen in offshore waters. As this Grebe is a strong flier, occasional individuals are able to land and take off from rather small, sluggish streams. This is the most common and social of our grebes. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 27 Remarks. That the Horned Grebe formerly bred just across the border in New Brunswick was shown by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1S84, 2: 433) who wrote that birds of this species were "not uncom- mon in the summer in the vicinity of Milltown, N. B. In the summer of 1873 he [Boardman] obtained a female with a brood of chicks." This was probably at the same muddy lake referred to by Boardman (1903: 242) in the quotation I have given under Holboell's Red-necked Grebe. Confusion in localities resulted in accrediting Boardman's breeding data to Maine by such writers as Knight (1879d: 13; 1908b: 21), G. M. Allen (1909: 2), and Forbush (1925: 9). Norton made notes on the length of submergences of this grebe when feeding, as follows: one bird, over mudflats with not more than 6 feet of water in a sheltered cove at Isle au Haut, Knox County, March 21, 1939, submerged 15, 23, 23, 24, 24, and 23 seconds; another, off a rocky shore of the same island and in about 21 feet of water, March 28, 1937, submerged 46 seconds; and a third, off a sandy shore in about 12 feet of salt water at Scarborough, October 21, 1938, submerged 15, 5, and 25 seconds. Longer dives, in unstated depth of water, were recorded by Mendall at South Thomaston, Knox County, in late July, 1936, four dives being 75, 65, 85, and 78 seconds. Pied-billed Grebe Podilymbus podiceps podiceps (Linnaeus) Transient, rather common in spring and fall on fresh water, and oc- casional to uncommon in late fall on salt water; summer resident, uncommon on fresh water; one winter record. Spring. Migration normally extends from about April 8 to May 19, the birds arriving at inland localities not long after the ice goes out. Latest records are for a bird seen May 26, 1910, and two, five days later, at Great Pond, Cape Elizabeth (Norton). Fall. Migration occurs from about September 1 into early Novem- ber. A bird was seen on November 13, 1904, at Westbrook, Cumber- land County (Norton in Brownson, 1906c: 62). Most salt water occur- rences are for late fall when a few birds are driven from inland waters by ice in late October and early November. Rreeding. This grebe has been found breeding from York to Wash- ington Counties and north into Franklin and Aroostook. The nest, a heap of wet vegetation, is built above the water's surface or, in some instances, floats anchored to plants in shallow water. "The nesting season is usually in June, sometimes it is even July before the eggs are laid and these vary from four to ten in number" (Knight, 1908b: 23). 28 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Some eggs must be laid in early May, at least in Cumberland County, for Norton saw a parent with four young, several days old, on June 11, 1939, at Cape Elizabeth. A nest with 7 eggs was found on May 30, 1942, at Seal Cove Pond, Mt. Desert Island (Eckstorm). A brood of "well grown" young was seen on July 4, 1938, at Scarborough (W. M. Holt). The following egg dates from Mendall refer to Portage Lake, Aroostook County: 4 eggs, July 8, 1939; 8 eggs, June 19, 1943; 5 eggs, June 15, 1945; and a set each of 4, 5, and 6 eggs on June 20, 1947. In Connecticut the incubation period has been recorded as 23 to 24 days, apparently beginning after the first egg is laid (Pease in Bent, 1919: 41). The fledging period apparently is unrecorded. Perhaps a second clutch is sometimes laid, for Weston found a nest with two eggs on August 1, 1940, at Seal Cove Pond. Winter. The one record for this season is for a bird seen by Weston on January 4, 1942, in the open water below the Bangor-Brewer dam. Ecology. This is a secretive bird in the breeding season, inhabiting the shallow margins of ponds, rivers-, and coves in lakes, where it nests among aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation. At other seasons, it is seen more often in open water but, typically, not very far from vegetation. Remarks. Knight (1908b: 23) listed the food of this bird as "tadpoles, small fish, small frogs, water insects and similar animal material." I have seen these birds come up with vegetation in their bills, and Norton shot a female at Westbrook on September 14, 1904, which had eaten vegetation and many beetles. According to Brewster (1924: 43) their stomachs are "commonly crammed with soggy masses of feathers." On August 20, 1941, Norton timed submergences of a bird of the year in a shallow pond in Evergreen Cemetery, Portland, and found a series of dives to be 15, 13, 18, 9, and 10 seconds. It is unfortunate that so many of these harmless and attractive birds are shot wantonly by gunners. Family DIOMEDEIDAE Yellow-nosed Albatross Diomedea chlororhynchus Gmelin Two records. On August 1, 1913, one was taken "near [Machias] Seal Island off Machias Bay," by Ernest O. Joy and is in the American Museum of Natural History (Murphy, 1922: 58). In this case of a pelagic bird, wandering so far into the Gulf of Maine near the inter- PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 29 national boundary, it seems proper to agree with Murphy (ibid.) that "the record constitutes an addition to the local avifauna of both New Brunswick and Maine." That this particular bird may have been seen farther westward, off Casco Bay, was implied by Norton (1934b: 508) in recording an unidentified albatross seen earlier that same summer by E. D. Rackliff. A female, taken alive a few days before July 23, 1934, among sedges by a brook in East Fryeburg, Oxford County, died in captivity, was mounted (ibid. 507), and is now in the collection of the Portland Society of Natural History. Family PROCELLARIIDAE Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus (Gmelin) Non-breeding (biologically wintering) resident or visitant from late spring to fall, fairly common in outer offshore waters and occasionally straying landward to within the outer fringe of islands. Occurrence. Earliest dates are May 23, 1915 (E. D. Rackliff), and May 24, 1918 (Norton), and latest is September 3, 1913 (Rackliff). These are for birds seen off Casco Bay. They undoubtedly occur later than this date. Dates for Essex County in Massachusetts range from March to October (Townsend, 1905: 109). Ecology. Both this bird and the Greater Shearwater feed chiefly on the surface, but also dive for objects a short distance below. They feed on squids, fishes, perhaps other swimming organisms, and waste, such as offal or "gurry" thrown overboard when fishermen are dressing their catch. The population of these two birds reaches its peak in August. Remarks. This species is much less numerous than the Greater Shearwater on the outer banks and pelagic waters, but all records at hand show that it is the more numerous well within the offshore zone. Here it occurs singly, in pairs, and rarely in groups of 6 to 30 (Norton) Weights of six specimens ranged from 26% ounces (a female) to two (? sex) weighing 32^ ounces each (Norton). This bird breeds in the southern hemisphere in November and December. Manx Common Shearwater Puffinus puffinus puffinus (Brunnich) Status uncertain. Probably of rare occurrence, at least formerly. The skin of one, "taken on the coast of Maine or New Brunswick," 30 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology number 73408 in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, was given to the Boston Society of Natural History in 1867 by G. A. Boardman (W. S. Brooks, 1917: 206). Remarks. Boardman (1862: 130), in his paper on Calais and the Bay of Fundy, wrote of this bird: "Summer. Common on mackerel grounds." T. M. Brewer (1875: 453) took issue with this and stated that "Mr. Boardman has never been able to procure one and has no other reason to suppose it is found on our coast than that the fishermen speak of a smaller kind of Hagdon, an authority altogether too vague." Perhaps, on reading this, Boardman wrote Brewer, for the latter subsequently (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 2: 385) wrote: "Mr. Boardman informs me that a single individual has from time to time been met with at sea off the coast of Maine and Nova Scotia; but he regards such an occurrence as extremely uncommon, and as purely accidental." That a small shearwater occurred on the American coast was first reported by Bonaparte. Manx Common Shearwater, formerly under the name P. anglorum, subsequently was reported for waters not remote from Maine by several writers. Thus Audubon (1835: 604), who had drawn P. Iherminieri from life and therefore should have recognized P. puffinus, wrote that he had procured the latter "to the westward of the banks of Newfoundland, or between their soundings and the American coast." DeKay (1844: 289) wrote: "Sable Island. Coast of Maine." Lawrence (in Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence, 1860: 834) reported that P. anglorum was said by Audubon to be "not un- common off the coast of Maine during summer." Being a contempo- rary of Audubon's, he may have received information not published by that author. Manx Common Shearwater is an offshore and not a pelagic species (Wynne-Edwards, 1935: 268). Greater Shearwater Puffinus gravis (O'Reilly) Non-breeding (biologically wintering) summer and fall resident or visitant, common in outer offshore and pelagic waters and rare in inshore waters and bays, usually during or after periods of fog. Occurrence. Whereas this bird probably occurs from mid-May on, the earliest date at hand is for one seen by Norton on June 4, 1918, off Cape Elizabeth. The latest date is for a specimen, taken offshore, November 12, 1882, now in the Everett Smith collection at the Portland Society of Natural History. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 31 Ecology. This species is more pelagic and far exceeds the Sooty in numbers beyond the Gulf of Maine. According to Wynne-Edwards (1935: 259), who cited several persons, there are shearwaters all summer long off the mouth of the Gulf of Maine and as far out as the edge of the Gulf Stream. Remarks. Two specimens of unstated sex weighed 26% ana< 30% ounces (Norton). Cory's Cinereous Shearwater Puffinus diomedea borealis Cory No record. Forbush (1925: 140) cited occurrence in southern New England and added that this bird "doubtless occurs off Maine coast as it has been recorded off western Newfoundland." This warm water species has been seen on the eastern Massachusetts coast, so it must occur rarely (probably after storms) landward of a line drawn from Cape Cod to Nova Scotia. There were two inland occurrences for Massachusetts after the hurricane of September 21, 1938 (Hendricks, 1939), but the birds probably did not arrive there via the Gulf of Maine. Atlantic Fulmar Fuhnarus glacialis glacialis (Linnaeus) Four records. A male was taken on the "coast of Maine" in March, 1879 (Anonymous, 1906:4; G. M. Allen, 1908b). "There is an in- definite record of a Fulmar taken some 12 years ago in Maine which was mounted for the owner by C. Emerson Brown . . . Unfortunately all data of this specimen are missing" (Forbush, 1925: 136). One was shot early in October, 1906, at French's Island Ledges in Casco Bay, and is in the Portland Society of Natural History (Norton, 1936). One, in light phase, was taken in fall, before 1938, on St. John waters in northern Somerset or Aroostook County; it was mounted and in the possession of the person who obtained it, Mr. John Sands of Moose River, Somerset County, when seen by the late Paul F. Eckstorm in 1938. Remarks. This species is listed as "Winter sea bird; Grand Manan" by Boardman (1903: 316); he took at least one specimen there (ibid. 192). Pettingill (1939a: 318) has shown that it has occurred at other times in waters of that region. 32 bulletin: museum op comparative zoology Pintado Petrel Daption capensis (Linnaeus) One record. A female, shot in June, 1873, at Harpswell, Cumberland County, is in the Worcester Society of Natural History (Stearns and Coues, 1883: 387; Norton, 1922a). Family HYDROBATIDAE Northern Leach's Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa leucorhoa (Vieillot) Summer resident, common to abundant on certain islands from Muscongus Bay eastward and common to numerous in offshore waters where adults, not in nest burrows, and probably first year non-breeding birds gather; transient, numerous in spring and fall in offshore and pelagic waters? may be a rare winter resident in offshore waters. Of rather rare occurrence inland, usually after storms. Spring. Fishermen state that "kerry chickens" arrive in offshore waters the first week in May. The earliest recorded date for a "petrel," doubtless Leach's, is May 6, 1896, at Seguin (Spinney, 1903b: 53). The first birds arrive at the breeding places about May 8 to 12. Migration probably continues until late in the month. Fail. As the breeding season advances, the population in offshore waters reaches its peak about August 15 to September 20, then declines until the last birds usually have gone by about October 20. There are a few inland occurrences to ^November, although it is not certain whether these refer to young out of burrows, late transients, or even winter residents. (See Breeding for late occurrence at colonies.) Breeding. Burrows are dug under rocks, stumps, tree roots, hum- mocks, or even abandoned buildings, and Norton (1925b: 47) once found a bird incubating in a hollow log two feet above the ground. The male excavates the burrow which averages 20 inches in length and requires about three days to dig (W. Gross, 1935: 388). The chamber may. not be lined, or may contain a rather loose construction of grass stalks, rootlets, twigs, old pieces of bark, dried leaves, feathers, or sheep's wool. Copulation occurs in the burrow at the end of the excavation period (ibid.) and a single egg is laid the following night. Bent (1922: 146) gave extremes of 50 egg dates in Maine as June 8 and August 8. Norton (1925b: 50) found an egg "noticeably incubated" as early as June 8, [1889, on Outer Green Island in Casco Bay] "indicating that stragglers PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 33 begin [laying] by the first of that month. By June 15 many have laid their egg, while every degree of nest-building will be found in progress." On the same island, N. C. Brown found two eggs as late as August 19, 1876, which later hatched (Norton). W. Gross (1935:385) re- ported some petrels "just beginning their breeding activities" at Kent Island, New Brunswick, in "September." Both sexes incubate (Merrill, 1881a: 250; and others). They change places at the nest at night. The incubation period was estimated by Bent (1922: 141) as "not far from five weeks," while W. Gross (1935: 390) knew of continuous incubation for 42 days and, as his obser- vations did not begin with laying, estimated "at least 50 days." On July 16, 1873, Franklin Benner examined a dozen or more burrows on Junk-of-Pork Island in Casco Bay, only two of which contained young, a day or two old, the rest each containing an egg "about half incubated" (T. M. Brewer, 1877c: 81). On the same date in 1885, Norton examined a large number of burrows on Little Green Island off western Penobscot Bay, and found well-incubated eggs but no young. On July 28, 1904, hatching was just beginning at Great Duck Island off Mt. Desert Island (Norton). Hatching on Machias Seal Island (Canadian territory) began on or about August 1 in 1947 (O. Hawksley). Young may be found regularly in numbers of burrows throughout September in any sizeable Maine colony. Rackliff collected a series of young petrels on Penobscot Bay islands, ranging from about two weeks old to fully fledged, the week of September 27, 1885. A young bird, "probably about a week old, and as lively as he would be in July," was found on Eastern Egg Rock, Muscongus Bay, October 15, 1908 (David, 1908). Rackliff, after camping on Great Duck Island one fall, reported to Norton that after the frost, many young petrels, evidently aban- doned by their parents, came out of burrows and niches in sea walls and were found over the island in sunny places. This may have been in early November when Rackliff customarily went there to shoot sea- fowl. W. Gross (1935:395) estimated incubating and fledging as requiring a total of "about 120 days." Very likely, the parents abandon the young before they are fledged regardless of how early in the season they are hatched. Winter. Benner (1874), writing at a time when this bird was much more numerous, stated that petrels occurred along the New England coast in winter. I am not certain that he was on our coast at this sea- son. His report probably was based on hearsay from fishermen and might have referred to late flightless young in colonies in fall, to the old hibernation idea, or to actual occurrence at sea. Knight (1908b: 6) wrote: "While these birds are not numerous off the coast in winter and 34 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology a few careful observers have failed to find them, yet I have been told by many fishermen that they have found Gary Chickens outside [off- shore] every month in the year, and there is no reason for doubting their statements." Forbush (1925: 146) stated that "a few strays have been reported in winter from the Maine coast." Since this bird has been taken in Greenland waters as late as December 10 and seen in January, February, and March (Wynne-Edwards, 1935: 2S2, citing Oldenow), and one was seen on January 17, 1940, about 300 miles east of Boston by C. R. Mason, the species may occur in the Gulf of Maine during this season. Ecology. This is an offshore and pelagic surface feeder. It is gregar- ious at sea, especially if food is abundant in a limited area, and is a colonial breeder. Nesting burrows are dug in loose soil or peat on the outer treeless or wooded islands, where associates formerly were terns, but now are mainly gulls and eiders. By mid-July, burrows in fields on ungrazed islands are hidden by a rank growth of herbage. The parent birds not incubating very rarely are found within miles of colonies by day. They come inshore at times in the night. Remarks. In view of the fact that this is a nocturnal bird and its burrows are well hidden, existing data are inadequate to show popula- tion trends in detail. The former breeding range in Maine extended westward into Casco Bay, the latest dates of occurrence there being May 22, 1914, when two burrows showing a "decided odor of this bird" were found on Outer Green Island, and at least 1918 on White Bull Island (Norton). The largest colonies, each composed of thousands of birds, were to be found on Wooden Ball and at Seal Island in the Matinicus group, Great and Little Duck Islands off Mt. Desert Island, and Machias Seal Island (now Canadian territory), off Cutler, Wash- ington County (Norton). This bird was known to have nested on 26 islands in former years (Norton and Allen, 1932: 340). In 1931, Nor- ton and Allen found occupied burrows on 12 islands, and surmised that seven others, where they could not land because of the surf, were also inhabited by these birds. The western limit of the breeding range in Maine is now Muscongus Bay where the species may have been absent in some recent years, but a few now breed. They nest on Penikese Island in Massachusetts. Norton and Allen (ibid. 341) mentioned "temporary periods of scarcity with returns to comparative abundance, which have been observed on several occasions in the past." There has been, however, a steady decline in the overall population since the turn of the century, with some colonies completely exterminated. This decline certainly is due to destruction at breeding places. For example, the colony on Wooden Ball Island was reduced by domestic cats (Wilbur Smith, PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 35 1911). These animals have caused much damage elsewhere. The colony at nearby No Mans Land was partially destroyed by the libera- tion, in 1916, of red foxes (Norton, 1925b: 48), only a few occupied burrows being found there in 1931. Dogs brought to islands by light keepers or picnicking parties have dug out many petrels. These birds cannot survive on the rat-infested inner islands. Minks have done much damage in Muscongus Bay, and Norton (ibid. 47) reported that a Duck Hawk killed petrels there in 1902. Herring and Black-backed Gulls probably have been the most unremitting agents of petrel destruction for the past 20 years. For Green Island in the Bay of Fundy, W. Gross (1935: 382) stated: "By trampling upon the nests of any Gulls which might attempt to establish themselves on the island, the cattle have rid the Petrels, which nest underground, of their worst enemy." He further (ibid. 383) wrote: "One can pick up the regur- gitated remains of dozens of birds in the morning along the shore after a night of full moonlight. The awkward, erratic flight of the Petrels makes them easy prey for the Gulls who stand guard along the shore and exact a heavy toll upon the bewildered birds which come fluttering in from the sea at night time. . . Furthermore, Petrels released during the day near a Gull colony were invariably captured and devoured by the more powerful and swifter flying Gulls." Inland occurrences, listed chronologically by year, are: one taken alive, October 21, 1882, at East Orrington, Penobscot County (Hardy) ; one taken, November 30, 1888, at the mouth of Presumpscott River, Falmouth, Cumberland County (Norton) ; one taken on unknown date at Sebago Lake, Cumberland County, and seen in a private collection on October 7, 1894 (Norton); one shot, October 21, 1896, at Lake Pennesseewassee, Oxford County (Anonymous, 1896c); one shot, October 9, 1897, on the Kennebec River at Hallowell, Kennebec Coun- ty (Knight, 1898b: 14); one taken on unstated date at Lake Auburn and another in the fall of 1900 at Sabattus Pond, both in Androscoggin County (Knight, 1908b: 68); one taken, October 7, 1902, in West- brook, Cumberland County, in Norton's collection; one seen in July, 1911, at Brewer Pond, Orrington, Penobscot County (Mrs. F. H. Eckstorm); one taken, November 5, 1919, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 9) ; and one found injured, September 22, 1938, in a field near Ellsworth, Hancock County, and kept alive for two days (Mrs. E. A. Anthony). The four specimens mentioned by Knight (1908b: 68) as having been taken, after storms, in Penobscot County probably include the 1882 record cited above. Whether this species feeds by night as well as day is not definitely settled, but appears probable. Digestive tracts contain oily material, having a distinctive odor. Food is not well known, but W. Gross 36 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology found Bay of Fundy birds had eaten tiny mollusks and small "trans- parent squids." Elsewhere, known items of diet include fishes, cope- pods, and other crustaceans. Collins (1884:317) reported petrels quartering back and forth like dogs working a scent, when coming to oily matter on the water, but the question of possession of a functional sense of smell is not proved experimentally. This bird can be 'tolled' close to a boat by tossing oily fish livers overboard. In an article, valuable for its historical data and descriptions of petrel vocabulary, Norton (1925b: 50-51) wrote: "There is a wide- spread tradition that these birds remain in the ground all winter. We have examined their burrows on a number of occasions during the months of December and February, with a single [negative] result. The outer islands, like mountain tops, are swept quite constantly by winds at or near gale force, sweeping most of the snow that falls away, while the little that becomes lodged in the short vegetation, by the combined action of the wind and sun is soon evaporated or melted, leaving the ground bare for most of the time, and open to the full action of the frost. The burrows become at first open tubes en- cased in hard frozen earth, and then receptacles for the water of melted snow and rain, which in turn becomes solid shafts of ice. "The belief that the birds winter in their burrows is very likely founded in part on the fact that numbers of young birds in large colonies, probably forced by hunger, emerge from their burrows late in fall." Gross (1947g) has shown that this petrel is a long-lived bird. This is a general characteristic of sea birds which have low annual repro- ductive potentials. For the benefit of future students, the following corrigenda to Maine literature are noted. Remarks on a very large flock of "petrels" at sea by Judd (1889) probably pertain to Wilson's Petrel. R. H. Howe (1901 : 14) was in error when he stated that this species does not come into Penobscot Bay at night. Mention of "Stormy Petrels" at the Duck Islands by Dutcher (1905b: 324) refers to the present species. Remarks about the "nearly depleted condition of one of the largest colonies" by Norton (1906c) refer to Wooden Ball Island. Pearson (1910), in discussing this same island, erroneously called it No Mans Land. References (in Brownson, 1906c: 66; 1908b: 48) to Leach's Petrel at Portland are based on Knox or Lincoln County occurrences and were included by mistake. Norton (1934a: 76) was referring to the former western limit of the "known breeding range" when he stated that it was Casco Bay. palmer: maine birds 37 Storm Petrel Hydrobatcs pelagicus (Linnaeus) Erroneously recorded. The specimen recorded by A. E. Verrill (1863: 234) was taken at Grand Manan, New Brunswick, as shown later by Boardman (1903: 315). The earlier report is the basis for inclusion of this species in the Maine lists of Holmes (1861a) and Hitchcock (1862), and, undoubtedly, for mention of Maine occurrence in the 1931 A. 0. U. Check-List (p. 15). Elsewhere (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 2:405), Boardman reported that this species occurred in the latter part of summer "off the coast of Eastern Maine," but I know of none having been taken. There are a few other references to "Stormy Petrel," but most, if not all, pertain to the two petrels which occur regularly in Maine. As the Storm Petrel breeds in the eastern North Atlantic, however, it might occur in our waters in fall and possibly in spring. Atlantic Wilson's Petrel Oceanites oceanicus oceanicus (Kuhl) Non-breeding (biologically wintering) resident or visitant in summer and early fall, numerous in offshore and pelagic waters and uncommon (sometimes numerous) in inshore waters to within view from the mainland, but less often seen in harbors. One inland record. Occurrence. Earliest dates are for several seen on May 23, 1915 (E. D. Rackliff), and one on May 24, 1918 (Norton), off Casco Bay. By June 5th of some years, they are present in great numbers in off- shore waters. The population begins declining in late August and the last birds have left by about mid-September. Norton considered them "abundant" off Casco Bay, September 13, 1916. The latest actual date is September 17, 1903, when a "young male," blown inland by a heavy southeast gale, was taken on Lake Cobbossecontee, Kennebec County (Swain, 1904b: 16). Ecology. This rather gregarious petrel is an offshore and pelagic species and, unlike Leach's Petrel, it comes inshore in daylight. Although most of their food is taken on the surface of the water, Norton (1916: 378) wrote: "I have several times seen them dive to the depth of about a foot for sinking food." About five miles east of the Isles of Shoals, on August 15, 1935, P. L. Wright (1937a: 21) saw flocks of at least 25 individuals alight on the surface of the water. Whales were plentiful in the vicinity that year. Incursions. During the summers of 1921 and 1922, many Wilson's Petrels came close inshore at various points from Cape Elizabeth to 38 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Penobscot Bay and frequently were seen from the shore of the main- land. Occurrence of such numbers inshore is unusual. The cause most likely was due to a shoreward movement of small marine organisms upon which these birds feed.. Remarks. This species breeds south of the equator. Through a misunderstanding, Audubon mentioned it as breeding on islands off Nova Scotia, and other writers extended this to include Maine. The error persisted for many years until finally corrected by Brewster (1884:404). In writing of these birds, Norton (1916: 378) observed: "During frequent excursions of five to twelve miles offshore the past fifteen years, this is the only species I have seen by day. It is a common occurrence to attract twenty to fifty of these birds about a boat at anchor or slowly drifting, in an hour's time. "If there is any breeze the birds are found flying to windward, and when they find it desirable to work over a small space, after once passing over it, they swing away in a large circle, and again come up from the leeward. . . returning again and again in the same manner. Thus a flock is composed of birds, constantly going and coming, and while fifty are in sight, probably nearly as many more are at hand, preparing to return. On these occasions they are rather silent, never noisy, but a low peeping note is often given." In unpublished data, Norton wrote of seeing great numbers about Cod Ledges, off Casco Bay, on June 18, 1918: "Soon they were seen in all directions, like swallows in a meadow, flitting busily over the glassy ocean or like a vast throng of butterflies in the summer sun. They kept crossing our wake, feeding on bait thrown overboard, and gathering in little groups. When near enough, they could be heard peeping contentedly. . . Soon we passed through the great scattered flock, even those following in our wake dropping astern, and only scattered ones being seen. . . I could detect no general movement, as of migration, but rather a great body of birds sweeping continually about. It was the largest gathering I have ever seen and all were of this species. All conditions of molt were noted." Family PHAETHONTIDAE Northern White-tailed Tropic-bird Phaethon lepturus catesbyi Brandt One record. A few days after the hurricane of September 21, 1938, an adult was found at East Winn, Penobscot County. It was mounted PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 39 by the late Walter Clayton, of Lincoln, from whose estate it was obtained for the collection of the Portland Society of Natural History (Norton, 1943b). Family PELECANIDAE White Pelican Pelecanus erythrorhynchos Gmelin Visitant, rare in summer (May 28 to August 20 or later). Records. Boardman first (1862: 130) listed this species as "Acci- dental. One or two instances," but later (in Knight, 1897d: 26; 1908b: 75) changed this to "one seen at Calais [Washington County], it was afterward shot over the line in New Brunswick." "A flock of seven is reported as having been seen in the St. Croix River [Maine- New Brunswick border] in August, 1874, by Captain Worcester, of St. Stephens, N. B." (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 2: 136). An adult male was taken on May 28, 1892, at Saponac Lake, Penobscot County, about 40 miles NNE of Bangor (Merrill, 1892a), and not the Mattawamkeag River, outlet of the lake, which has once or twice been mentioned as the locality whence the specimen came. This specimen was for many years in the Manly Hardy collection which was sold to the Roger Williams Park Museum, in Providence, Rhode Island. During a storm on June 8, 1897, two of these birds alighted in a field at Eliot, York County (Knight, 1898b: 14; 1908b: 75). One was taken on an unstated date in 1913 at "Matinicus Light, Seal Rock" [ = at or near Matinicus Rock, Knox County] and was purchased from Francis Dana for the Boston Society of Natural History (C. W. Johnson, 1914: 2). It was accessioned in December of that year (Forbush, 1925: 165). One was seen over a period of ten days to two weeks, including the week of August 20, 1945, in Blue Hill and vicinity, Hancock County, by a number of observers (G. A. Waterman). Brown Pelican Pelecanus occidentalis subsp. Four records. "A live Pelican about as large as a wild goose, was taken in the Kennebeck River in the spring of 1826, two miles above Bath [Sagadahoc County]" (Williamson, 1832: 147). In the summer of 1914, one was seen at Hog Island, in the Metinic group, Knox County (RacklifF). In early November of that year, one, possibly the 40 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology same bird, was seen several times near Jacquish Ledges off Baileys Island in eastern Casco Bay (E. Sinnett). Several times in September, 1922, one of these birds was seen at Seguinland, in Georgetown, Sagadahoc County (Dr. H. F. Twitchell). Remarks. The specimen captured alive at Bar Harbor in the fall of 1900 (Dill, 1901) was one of several brought from Florida and raised in captivity at Castine, Hancock County (Norton, 1916: 379; May, 1916). On April 3, 1938, another escaped captive was found dead at Falmouth, Cumberland County, and was taken to the Portland Society of Natural History (Norton). Since a subspecies from the Lesser Antilles also is recognized, and birds might be blown northward by hurricanes from the ranges of two races, I have used a binomial scientific name above. Family SULIDAE Gannet Morus bassanus (Linnaeus) Transient, common to sometimes numerous, in spring and fall, in offshore waters and, during gales, in inshore waters; non-breeding summer resident (mostly immature birds), uncommon offshore and occasional inshore; perhaps an occasional winter resident. One definite inland record. Spring. Most transients are seen from April 13 to May 14, with stragglers — a few adults and a larger number of immatures — seen until about May 24. Early records are: Jeffreys Bank and vicinity where fishermen saw Gannets in abundance March 15 to 20, and 24, and in lesser numbers, March 29 to April 3, 1920 (Norton); and one seen by Spinney near Seguin on April 8, 1903. Fall. Most birds pass along our coast from late September to November 15, the peak of the flight occurring in the last third of October, and stragglers seen to at least November 30. Transients were observed passing Seguin as early as September 18, 1897 (Spinney). Summer. A fair estimate of June and July occurrence would be 12 to 15 birds, most of which are 'Gray Gannets' or immature birds, only one or two being adults. Winter. Although several early writers stated that the gannet was a common winter resident, I have only four sight records. These are for December and early January. Probably the bird occurs more often, however, than these few records would seem to indicate. Ecology. This bird is typically an offshore migrant and wanderer in PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 41 our area, being most numerous over outer banks and shoals. It is not gregarious, but numbers will gather about when one bird dives re- peatedly for food in a given area. The gannet plunges for fish from a considerable height (usually 50 to 80 feet), submerges completely, and is reported to descend sometimes quite a distance below the surface. Remarks. Sometimes flights are forced inshore by gales. This was said by Audubon (1838: 225) to have resulted in a few inland oc- currences in Nova Scotia and Maine. Hamlin (1865: 173) mentioned a specimen taken inland in Kennebec County. The digestive tract of an immature male, shot November 15, 1881, off Casco Bay, contained remains of sea urchins (N. C. Brown); perhaps these echinoderms had been eaten by some fish which the bird had caught. The "mackerel, or fishing Gull" mentioned by Williamson (1832: 145) refers to this species. These birds formerly nested on Gannet Rock in the Grand Manan archipelago, New Brunswick. A. E. Verrill and T. M. Brewer found that the colony had dwindled to one or two pairs in 1859, but "was probably not entirely deserted until about 1866" (Gurney, 1913: 311). They also bred formerly near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia (Bent, 1922 :228). Family PHALACROCORACIDAE European Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo carbo (Linnaeus) Winter resident, common to numerous from Eastport, Washington County to Casco Bay and uncommon westward; transient, common to numerous in spring and fall all along the coast; non-breeding summer resident, uncommon from Washington County to Muscongus Bay and occasional westward. One inland record. Fall. Migration occurs chiefly from about September 12 to October 20. Two birds, believed to have been transients, were noted as early as September 5, 1913, in outer Casco Bay (Norton). Winter. Small groups occupy various roosts — often sites where the double-crested species roosts or nests in summer — and make regular flights from these places to feeding areas. At the present time, 60 to 100 birds is a large number for any one roost, and such are reported only east of Small Point, Sagadahoc County. Spring. Migration occurs throughout March and to about April 24, the northward withdrawal overlapping the arrival of the Double- crested Cormorant. 42 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Summer. At present, ten is a goodly number to see at any one roost (usually shared with its smaller relative), from Knox County eastward. To the west only scattered birds or very small numbers have as yet been reported regularly occupying a roost. Ecology. The ecological requirements of this species are fairly similar to those of the Double-crested Cormorant. The European frequents more exposed outer shores and is seldom seen in sheltered harbors, coves, and reaches. (See Ecology under Northern Double-crested Cormorant.) Remarks. References to the breeding of this bird in adjacent New Brunswick waters began with Samuels (1867: 535) who wrote: "The Grand Manan is the most southern breeding-place of this bird in our neighborhood. There it builds a large nest of seaweeds on shelves of steep cliffs or in crevices of the rocks." I am not aware that he visited the island, but T. M. Brewer, who visited there in 1850 and 1859, stated (1875: 448): "Rare summer resident (Maine); migratory." He omitted mention of Grand Manan. Later (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 2: 149) he stated: "This species formerly bred at several points on the New England coast, from Nahant [Massachusetts] northward; but has long since been driven away, although a few of these birds still breed on rocky cliffs in Frenchman's Bay [Maine] and the Bay of Fundy." I do not think he had first-hand Maine data on summer occurrence. About 100 non-breeding birds used to roost all summer, in the 1860's, on Robinson's Rock, Islesboro, Waldo County (Rackliff), and unpublished notes of Manly Hardy indicate that, for 1875-1885, adult and flying immature birds were by no means scarce in summer in Jericho Bay and eastward, but Hardy never hinted at probable breeding. It would seem therefore, that either a small and irregularly breeding population did exist in early years, or that the presence of non-breeding birds gave rise to reports of breeding. At the present time the two species of cormorants breed together as near as eastern Nova Scotia and, with more European Cormorants spending the summer each year in Maine waters, Gross (1944c: 517) has suggested "that we be on the watch for its nesting on the islands on the Maine coast." The one inland record is for a bird shot in October, 1896, at Chemo Pond, Penobscot County, and recorded by Knight (1879d: 26). Northern Double-crested Cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus auritus (Lesson) Summer resident, numerous to very abundant (over 1,000 pairs in one colony) on coastal islands and rocks, with numerous 'shag roosts' PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 43 occupied largely by immature birds, and uncommon visitant (? all immature birds) inland; transient, abundant coastwise in spring and fall, with many birds making flights for considerable distances inland on the larger waterways (numerous in fall at Merrymeeting Bay). No certain winter record. Spring. Most transients along the coast are seen between April 10 and May 4. Early records are for 40 seen on March 15, 1937, at Bar Harbor, Mt. Desert Island (G. Swanson), and a single bird seen on March 24, 1941, at Schoodic Point, Hancock County (Weston). Norton considered migration completed by the end of May in the Portland region, the late May flocks being mostly immature birds. Early records which may be considered inland are for three seen on April 17, 1944, at the head of tidewater at Brewer (Weston), and several seen on April 26, 1942, at Merrymeeting Bay (Norton). Some birds follow the main rivers inland in late April and very early May, but most return to salt water within a short time. Fall. "In Maine, there is little evidence of migratory tendencies among the resident birds until the last of August or the first of Sep- tember. During the last two weeks of August, however, there is usually a greater abundance of cormorants in the various bays than would be occasioned by the resident adults and their young — this fact indicating the arrival from the maritime provinces" (Mendall, 1936b: 27). The latter statement also is indicative of a premigration dispersal when some birds, immature and adult, may go in any shoreward or landward direction. Norton noted this movement on the coast when he saw several birds on August 16, 1907, near Seguin, at a time when none bred in Maine or roosted that far westward. This dispersal probably accounts for the majority of birds seen on inland waters at this season. The main southward movements "reach a peak during September and October, and gradually fall off during November. A few late stragglers may be observed in December but such instances are rare" (ibid.). Late inland records are for four seen on September 17, 1942, at Portage Lake, Aroostook County (W r eston), and one shot "about November 18" [actually November 10] in 1895, at Kingman, Penobscot County, and presented to the University of Maine collection (Knight, 1896c: 178). Flight years. Forbush (1925: 162) stated that after this species had a "good breeding season in the North," it passed along the New England coast in "great numbers" in autumn. He reported a large flight in 1905, and the greatest he had ever seen in 1921. Breeding and summer. Although there are a few colonies in Maine where trees are used for nest sites, the majority of these birds. nest on the ground where sites range from shelves on steep cliffs to the more 44 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology level areas on islands. Time required for construction of nest varies, a nest which has been used the year before needing only about two days' work and a new one about four. Both sexes are active in the building, although after the foundation is laid, the male's role generally is restricted to bringing material to the female. The foundation (rock- weed, kelp, debris) is of finer material than the upper part (sticks, weed stalks, stranded flotsam), and the lining may consist of feathers, grass, algae, or other available material. The nest is added to throughout the breeding season. Usually four eggs (less commonly three, and two to six noted) are laid beginning right after the nest is finished by the second week in May. They are laid at any time of the day, with sometimes an interval of more than one day between layings. Incubation, by both sexes, requires approximately 25 days. Young leave the small nest territory at three to four weeks of age and join in flocks, returning to nests to be fed by regurgitation. Before reaching flying age at the end of the sixth week, they may wander throughout the entire colony. One brood is raised yearly. (Summarized from Mendall, 1936b.) Non-breeding birds are to be found occupying roosts all along the coast, but principally east of Casco Bay. As a rule, immature birds are not tolerated in breeding colonies, although a few may sometimes attempt to stay about. Mendall (1936a) reported one of these, be- lieved to have been a male, building a nest, engaging in courtship, and guarding a territory in a colony. Ecology. Both our cormorant species are typically littoral birds. When feeding, they often fly unnecessary distances, keeping to winding water routes, rather than cross land or even extensive water areas. A round trip for food may be as much as ten nautical miles (Norton, 1923a: 16). Both species swim and dive like loons, catching their prey near bottom, as revealed by items eaten (see below). Practically all fishing is done in less than 30 feet of water. Although some writers have stated that these birds sometimes plunge from the air like kingfishers, confirmation of this is lacking. Tree nests generally are in dead trees or trees soon killed by the excrement of the birds. With two reported exceptions, ground nests in Maine have been on bare rocks or soil lacking all vegetation. Mendall had a captive young bird that had such a strong negative reaction to walking on grass, it would take flight to avoid this. In a crowded colony some nests are very close to each other, although ideally they are a few feet apart. Numerous published photographs show the fairly even spacing of nests and minimum desirable territory. Large Golonies are often the result of expansion of the several nest- groups characteristic of 'young' colonies. Most colonies are used as PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 45 roosts for some years prior to their becoming actual breeding grounds. At places well inland, birds usually are found on sizeable lakes. Numbers occur regularly at Merrymeeting Bay where there are suitable roosting places, although I am of the opinion that most of these birds return to salt water at night. These birds sleep on land and not, as some people believe, on the water. Herring Gulls, Black-backed Gulls, and American Eiders are breeding associates, although they nest somewhat apart from the cormorants. The two gulls rob nesting material from the cormorants and also eat their eggs and young. (Summarized from Mendall, 1936b, with additions.) Remarks. Mendall (1936b: 5-13) has given an account of the early history of this species in Maine, the greater part of these historical data having been supplied by Norton. Through confusion of species, the definite status of this bird was not too clear from the early litera- ture. In 1883, Smith (1882-83: 185) wrote that this species was abundant along the coast during migrations and although some re- mained throughout the summer, none bred. If any birds did breed during the decade of 1880-1890, they must have been restricted to isolated ledges hard of access, for no records can be found in the fairly extensive literature of that period. Before 1900, great reductions were made in these birds' numbers by fishermen who used them as bait, and by others for general target practice. Charles K. Reed took eggs of this species, probably in June, 1892, near Isle au Haut, Knox County (Knight, 1896b: 13). Undoubtedly these were secured on adjacent Black Horse Ledge, for Knight later (1900b: 6-7) told of visiting this ledge, giving nesting data for 1893, 1895, and 1896. In 1896, there were but two nests, one of which was incomplete and the other having been robbed. He was informed of the birds being present but not breeding in June, 1899. Norton frequently inspected the coast, including islands, from Portland to the New Brunswick border, between the years 1902 and 1923, without finding any nesting cormorants. From 1905 on, 'shag roosts' were noted. That three birds were "nesting" on Black Rock near Cone Island, off Addison, Washington County (Norton, 1907d: 325) was an error for "roosting." Mendall (1936b: 12) suggested that the Double-crested probably began nesting again in Maine about 1925. In a cruise along the coast from Cutler, Washington County, to Saco Bay from June 23 to July 14, 1931, Norton and Allen (1931 : 591) found this species nesting as follows: 1,000 on Old Man Island, off Cutler; 100 on Pulpit Rock off Jonesport, Washington County; 40 on Spoon Ledge near North Haven, 600 on Marblehead Island near Owl's Head, and 8 on Old 46 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Hump Ledge off St. George, all in Knox County. To the west, they found roosts only. To discuss the subsequent great increase of this species in detail is beyond the scope of this paper. The reader is referred to Mendall (1936b: 11-12) and to the detailed statistics of Gross (1944c). The latter, for 1944, listed colonies having, as a total, "well over 10,000 pairs of nesting birds" and extending along our entire coast. According to Cruickshank, over 2,100 pairs nested in Muscongus Bay in 1946. Of bird remains found in a kitchen midden at Old Point, in Lamoine, Hancock County, cormorant (species unstated) bones were found to be among the more numerous (Moorehead, 1922: 166). Several early writers reported the manner by which Indians secured cormorants of unstated species for food. Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80-81), who lived at what is now Scarborough, wrote that "the Cormorant, Shape or Sharke" roosts at night "upon some Rock that lyes out in the Sea, thither the Indian goes in his B'irch-Canoiv when the Moon shines clear," and after killing the "watchman" of the birds, "he takes them up as he pleaseth, still wringing off their heads; when he hath slain as many as his Canow can carry, he gives a shout which awakens the surviving Cormorants, who are gone in an instant." In his study of this species, Mendall (1936b: 109) tabulated the food from 519 regurgitated meals and found that the greater part consisted of cunner, sculpin, and gunnel. Obviously the birds do not compete with man for the more economically valuable forms of marine life. They are a nuisance, however, in that they rob weirs, and I have heard fishermen complain of the loss of fish by reason of the birds coming into the weirs and thereby forcing the catch to crowd to the bottom where many fish suffocate. The great rise in population has brought about more of this type of molestation and, as a consequence, an increase of complaints from weir fishermen. As a result, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, through an agreement with the Maine Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries, began a control program in 1944 which consists of spraying the eggs with an oil emulsion to prevent hatching, as is done with the Herring Gull. The number of eggs sprayed in Maine is: 17,679 in 1944; 21,871 in 1945; 11,436 in 1946; 25,328 in 1947; and 16,162 in 1948; making a total of 92,476 eggs. No control of the species is indicated as yet. The last word regarding roles of the sexes in courtship is yet to be written. 'Although H. F. Lewis (1929: 23-25) maintained that the male was the actively displaying bird, he presented some evidence to the contrary (ibid. 25-26). Mendall (1936b: 37-40) agreed with Lewis on the whole, but indicated that some doubt remained, especially as PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 47 regards posturing on the water. In view of the fact that the sexes are quite similar, that males aid in nest-building, and that there is a sex recognition performance where one bird touches the other or beaks are locked (described by Mendall, ibid. 38), it seems likely that the sexes may change roles during some phases of display. The reason why cormorants so often hold their wings spread while perching is still a moot point. Of the many explanations offered, I would favor that of Norton (in Mendall, ibid. 100), who thought it a part of display "probably divested of the emotion of sex" during most of the year. A comparable example might be the year-round nodding of the Noddy Tern. Cormorants often keep their beaks open somewhat, even in cool weather, and the throat pouch quivers, reminding one of a dog panting. Mendall (ibid. 98-99) stated that there appeared to be no stimulus involved other than the mere opening of the beak. It may be that they, like gannets in having very small nostrils, use this device to facilitate breathing. Gannets are given to frequent gaping. As is well known, cormorants fly in lines like geese. A September flock of these 'geese' winging southward is reported quite regularly by the local press as forecasting an early winter! Mendall (ibid. 125-126) gave a series of submergence records, the longest being 41 seconds in unstated depth of water. Two series of dives in ten feet of water averaged 20.2 and 22 seconds, with 26 dives ranging from 16 to 30 seconds. The longest series was for 16 feet of water and averaged 27.7 seconds with 14 dives ranging from 28 to 33 seconds. Boardman (1862: 130) stated that this species occurred in winter in the vicinity of Calais and in the Bay of Fundy. Although a specimen may have been taken at that season, to imply regular winter oc- currence was an error, and later (Boardman, 1903: 313) was altered to mere mention of occurrence in migrations. The earlier report has been repeated by Bent (1922:250) and the A. 0. U. Check-List (1931:22), and probably was the basis of Knight's (1908b: 74) mention of winter occurrence. Family FREGATIDAE Man-o'-war-bird Fregata magnificens rothschildi Mathews Two records of birds shot, but neither preserved. "Mr. Purdie's manuscript informs us that a specimen was taken, but not preserved about twelve years ago [about 1871], at Booth Bay 48 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology [Lincoln County], Maine" (Stearns and Coues, 1883: 342). In 1903, Daniel French of Jonesport, Washington County, informed Norton that in 1893 he shot a specimen as it was flying over Libby Island off Machiasport in the same county. It was sent to Charles Parker, taxidermist at Machias, who, in a letter dated June 14, 1914, told Norton, "I remember of Mr. French shooting the Frigate Bird, but if I remember rightly it spoiled and never was mounted." Forbush (1925: 171) referred to this specimen, citing an item in the Boston Evening Transcript of October 19, 1893, which recorded that the bird had been shot "some time ago" at Machias. Family ARDEIDAE Northern Great White Heron Ardea occidentalis occidentalis Audubon Hypothetical. Sight records, probably for the same individual, are for September 4, 1948, at the Presumpscot River, Falmouth, Cumber- land County, by Rich, and on October 6 of the same year at Berwick, York County, by Dr. Anne Perkins (Gross, 1948a: 68). It would seem to me that a very large white heron most likely was a more or less albinistic Northern Great Blue Heron. Northern Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias herodias Linnaeus Occasional resident (probably locally migrant) in coastal counties eastward into Waldo; summer resident, occasional to numerous, with most of the breeding colonies on inshore islands and the adjacent mainland; transient, common in spring and fall in the southern half of the state and less so northward. Spring. Since numerous March records are for coastal counties, these may be for wintering birds. There is a definite migration about April 1 to 11, and birds continue to arrive until April 24 or later in coastal counties. Chamberlain has noted arrivals April 11 to 21 at Presque Isle, at which time the ice still covers most of the lakes and ponds, and only brooks have open water. Fall. Since young birds are found widely scattered in late August and early September in areas where heronries do not exist, obviously there is a dispersal prior to migration. The main southward movement occurs from about October 5 to November 12. There are numerous PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 49 occurrences as late as December 5 to 19 on inland waters of the southern half of the state. Later the freeze-up forces these birds to move to salt water where some remain and others fly farther south. The latest date for Aroostook County is November 9, 1941, at Presque Isle (Chamberlain); for Washington County, December 6, 1924, near Machiasport (Rich) ; and for Hancock County, December 4, 1945, at Surry (Mrs. E. A. Anthony). An interesting record is for one seen about December 14, 1939, on offshore Monhegan (Mrs. J. A. Town- send), w T here this species also occurs earlier in migration. Breeding. Although solitary nests are found, usually this bird breeds in colonies of a few to over a hundred pairs. Larger Maine heronries have been reported, including one containing "about 300 nests" on a Muscongus Bay island in 1927 (Backus, 1929), but usually there are about 25 to 60 nests. Fairly substantial nests of sticks, lined with twigs, are built from 15 feet above ground to quite near the tops of tall trees. I have seen 11 nests in one tree in a Casco Bay colony. Nests are used, probably by the same birds, on successive years and material added (Knight, 1898a: 12), until they fall or are blown down. Records for Maine indicate clutches of three to five eggs with four the usual number. Laying begins by late April. On May 5, 1935, one set of five fresh eggs and another of four, slightly incubated, were collected at Georgetown, Sagadahoc County (Harris). Eggs with living embryos have been found the last week in June. Incubation, by both sexes, is about 28 days (Bent, 1926: 106), as determined outside of Maine. Nearly all young had hatched on June 4, 1922, in a colony of "about 50" nests near Boothbay, Lincoln County (Norton). Feeding is by regurgitation. Probably 50 days are required for fledging. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. Audubon (1835: 88) reported this bird wintering in Maine, and at least 15 such instances are known for the present century. Most are for Cumberland, but York, Sagadahoc, Knox, Lincoln, and Waldo Counties are included. In mild winters a few birds probably remain on tidewater all along the coast. Ecology. This heron, feeding on a wide variety of aquatic and shore life, frequents the shores of ocean bays, islands, coves, flats, streams, lakes, ponds, marshes, and ditches. Some feeding is done on high ground and uplands near marshes where food may consist of insects, mice, and snakes. Although this bird feeds both by day and night when not molested, it tends to be crepuscular if persecuted. Most heronries are in woods of deciduous or coniferous live or dead trees, and any combination of these. Nests are in fairly open, exposed sites since this large bird needs more room for movement and is less partial to shade than the Night Heron, which often nests in the same heronry. 50 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology A colony sometimes is several miles from the nearest feeding place, birds of both species flying over a regular route to and fro, as I have observed at Brunswick, Cumberland County. Wintering birds find open water at tidewater, but are probably forced to eat almost any obtainable animal food for sustenance. Remarks. The population of this heron has diminished over the years. Cyrus Eaton (1851 : 6-7) stated that these birds were seen much less frequently at the time he wrote than thirty years before in Knox County. Brewster (1924: 195-198) noted a decrease of birds in the Umbagog region, Oxford County, from 1885 throughout his subse- quent visits to 1909; his account gives a sad picture of human vandal- ism and wanton destruction of heronries. Kendall (1902a: 7) wrote of the decrease in Cumberland County, from 1880 to 1900, and re- called an incident where crews of two schooners shot herons and salted the meat — probably to use as fish bait. With protection, beginning at the turn of the century, there was a marked increase in population over three decades (Norton), but there has been a slight decline since then. Colonies are unstable and constantly shifting location. Some ap- parent reasons for this include: predation on eggs and small young by Crows, and Ravens, human molestation, and unstable forest con- ditions, including lumbering operations. Although this heron sometimes is accused of serious and widespread predation on game and food fishes, I am not aware that such charges ever have been proved in Maine. Admittedly some birds do local damage at hatcheries. It is extremely doubtful that these herons, so often seen perching on weirs along the coast, get much of their food at these places. Rosier's mention (1605; 1887: 159) of "Hernshawes" in what is now St. George, Knox County, may be considered the first Maine record of this species. American Egret Casmerodius albus egretta (Gmelin) Visitant, rare in spring and uncommon (common at a few localities some years) in late summer and early fall in western coastal counties, but diminishing eastward to a status of only occasional in Washington County; rare inland. Spring. All records are: one shot on April 7, 1891, on Great Cran- berry Island, Hancock County (Smith in Knight, 1897d: 39); one shot a few days before April 24, 1875, at Scarborough (N. C. Brown, 1875); a female shot on April 23, 1911, at Scarborough (Brock, 1912); one PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 51 shot, probably in Millbridge, Washington County, and received at a Bangor taxidermy shop on May 3, 1906 (Knight, 190Gb); and one seen on May 22, 1945, at Ocean Park, York County (Mrs. G. Webb). Summer and fall. Most occurrences are in August and the species now is seen in that month in at least three out of five years. The earliest record is for one seen on June 16 and 17, 1929, at Ogunquit, York County, and recorded by May (1929: 339), and the latest is for one seen on October 10, 1948, at Ogunquit, by C. Street. Ecology. In Maine this gregarious bird frequents salt marshes and tidal flats, being found less often about fresh water. The commonest associate is the Little Blue Heron. Remarks. From 1854 to 1905 there were seven reported occurrences (eight individuals); 1906 to 1910, no records; and 1911 to 1933, forty- six individuals noted in 14 different years. Since then it may have occurred every year, although I lack records for six of them. In August, 1946, there was a flight, about 20 individuals being seen by various observers. Some of these went as far east as Acadia National Park on Mt. Desert Island. In 1948 at least three times as many occurred as in 1946, with birds noted from July 14 to October 10. Relatively high numbers were present throughout August and most of September. Most were seen in coastal York and Cumberland Counties, but some went considerably farther eastward and northward. Gross (1948a) has given some data on this flight, but more will be published later. [Later reports indicate that perhaps nearly 200 individuals were present.] Inland records of interest are: a bird in juvenal plumage shot on August 9, 1887, on Kennebago Stream, Rangeley, Franklin County (Brewster, 1924: 203); two seen (one shot) on August 20, 1896, at Pleasant Pond, between Richmond, Sagadahoc County, and West Gardiner in Kennebec County (Powers in Knight, 1897d:39); and at least seven which I saw on September 15, 1948, on the Kennebec River about six miles below Augusta. The occurrence of this species in Maine is due, for the most part, to an extensive post-breeding dispersal prior to returning south to winter within the breeding range. The increase in numbers is a result of protection, especially on the breeding grounds. Compare this bird with the Little Blue Heron, which has shown similar dispersal behavior and population trends. Of the several records for the Grand Manan archipelago, one is for an adult on the early date of April 5, 1936 (Pettingill, 1939a: 321), and another for an immature bird shot on the late date of November 3, 1878 (Deane, 1879c). 52 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Snowy Egret Leucophoyx thula (Molina) A small number in 19-')S was seen, in late summer, mainly in coastal portions of York and western Cumberland Counties, usually associ- ating with American Egrets and Little Blue Herons. In the data given by Gross (1948a), the earliest occurrence was one in "July" at Ocean Park, Old Orchard Beach, York County; the latest was five on Sep- tember 10 at Prout's Neck, Scarborough, Cumberland County; and the maximum number identified at any one time was seven at the latter place on August 11. Probably not over a dozen individuals were in Maine during this flight year. Remarks. On page 69 of the July, 1945, mimeographed issue of the Bulletin of the Maine Audubon Society there is mention that "Mrs. Genevieve D. Webb saw a Snowy Egret" on May 22, 1945, at Ocean Park. Mrs. Webb writes me that this was an American Egret. Knight (1908b: 649) stated that a specimen taken by Boardman at Grand Manan had been accredited to Maine by several writers. An example of this was Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884, 1: 30), who stated that the species was found in summer "as far to the northeast as Calais, Me." Northern Little Blue Heron Florida caerulea caerulea (Linnaeus) Visitant (mostly immature white birds), rare in spring and un- common in summer and early fall, with more records for coastal than inland counties, and most birds occurring in southwestern Maine. One record of a bird lingering from May into September. Spring. All records are: white male shot on April 1, 1902, at Vinal- haven, Knox County (Norton, 1902); adult seen on April 9, 1947, at Ocean Park, Old Orchard Beach, York County, by Mrs. G. Webb (in Gross, 1947f: 29); in 1928 an adult male was found dead on April 17 at Machias, and an adult seen on May 15 at Roque Bluffs, both in Washington County (F. Kilburn); a white female shot on May 19, 1901, at Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County (Spinney in Swain, 1901d: 29); an adult seen on May 19 and 20, 1936, at Stillwater, Penobscot County (Palmer); and a white bird which came to the Scarborough marshes in the latter part of May, 1881, and remained until it was shot in September (Wade, 1881a; N. C, Brown, 1882d; Smith, 1882- 33:104). Summer and fall. Aside from the summering bird just mentioned, the only June record is for a single bird seen by B. Barker on June PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 53 17, 1948, at Verona, Hancock County, recorded by Gross (1948b: 71). For July, there are records at hand from the first of the month on, but mainly for the last week. I have 28 August records for at least 41 individuals in the years 1906, 1913, 1924, 1929, 1930, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1944, 1946, and 1947. Almost all occurrences were in coastal counties, notable exceptions being a white bird seen on August 20, 1946, at Jackman, Somerset County (Mrs. W. Foerster) and another shot on August 25, 1936, at Millinocket Lake, Penobscot County (Mendall, 1937a). The largest flight occurred in 1948, mainly in August but with some birds lingering into September, and with most birds noted in the two southwestern counties. Probably about two dozen birds were present. Some data on the flight were given by Gross (1948a). In addition to the few September occurrences in 1948, there are these earlier ones for that month: one seen on September 1, 1929, at Machias (F. Kilburn); five seen on September 1, 1936, at Lake Cobbosseecontee in inland Kennebec County (Mrs. C. E. Norton); and one seen from September 10 to 30, 1934, on Mt. Desert Island (A. Stupka). Ecology. This is a bird of ponds, lake margins, marshes, and shallow water in slow streams, occurring to date somewhat more often on fresh than salt water. It is gregarious and also social, being seen in company with the American Egret and other herons. Remarks. All records for adults have been cited above. The largest number of immature birds seen together was six, which I observed at Brunswick from August 7 to 10, 1929. With only the 1881 record for the previous century, and most birds having been seen since 1928, a marked increase is very apparent. Solitary birds and pairs appear at several places in some years, then quite often some of these join company. This moving about and joining has caused a duplication of records for a given individual, which I have tried to eliminate, but the presence of some individuals certainly has not been noted at all. This bird has occurred twice on offshore Monhegan (W. Taylor), but I lack dates for these visits. Eastern Green Heron Butorides virescens virescens (Linnaeus) Summer resident, uncommon, chiefly along the coast (to about 35 miles inland) east to Penobscot Bay and up the Penobscot to Bangor and Brewer, and has occurred as a rare visitant eastward to Calais and 54 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology northward to the Sourdnahunk region in Piscataquis County, Jackman in Somerset, and Bethel and Upton in Oxford. Spring. The average arrival date is about April 26, and records indicate that migration continues to about May 19. Early dates are for single birds and are: shot on April 18, 1929, at Brunswick, Cumber- land County (Palmer); seen on April 21, 1933, at Brewer (Weston); and seen on April 25, 1910, at Farmington, Franklin County (Swain in Sweet, 1911a: 50). A spring record of interest is for a bird seen by Smith on May 17, 1875, at Machias, Washington County. Fall. Most migrants are seen the last three weeks in September. 'An earlier record is for one seen September 8 and 11, 1944, at Brewer (Weston). For Pittsfield, Somerset County, W. Cooke (1913: 58) gave September 21 as the average date of last bird seen for three years. Farther north in the same county, a late date is September 22, 1937, when A. R. Phillips saw a bird at Moose River, near Jackman. Latest dates are for one seen October 2, 1898, at Pittsfield (in W. Cooke, ibid.), one seen October 3, 1915, at Somesville, Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941: 53), and one seen October 5 and 6, 1915, at Falmouth, Cumberland County (Norton). Breeding. As a rule this species nests singly, though several pairs may sometimes be found near each other. Placed in a small tree near water, the nest is a crude platform of sticks through which the eggs (probably four or five) can be seen. Laying in Maine probably occurs from May 20 to June 20, but actual dates are lacking. "C. D. Farrar has an egg that was taken from a nest in a fir tree beside Sabattus River at Lisbon [Androscoggin County] in 1872, and in 1873 another nest with young was found near the same place" (E. Johnson, 1900b: 32). In studying a second nesting in Michigan, Cooley (1942: 9) found that incubation required about 20 days, and that both adults fed the nestlings which remained in the nest 15 to 16 days. On June 17, 1923, Norton found a nest in a gray birch at Westbrook, Cumberland County and three partly grown young were climbing about the branches. The young are fed by regurgitation. Fledging probably takes about 35 days, although the young climb when much younger. Perhaps only a single brood is raised yearly in Maine. Ecology. This is a bird of sheltered waters having shallow and muddy margins. Although it may feed at any time of the day, it is most active in early morning and late afternoon. It is not gregarious, feeding territories being defended against intrusion by members of the same species. Remarks. The Green Heron probably breeds every year in York, Cumberland, Sagadahoc, Androscoggin, and Kennebec Counties, and perhaps occasionally in at least Lincoln, Knox, Somerset, Piscataquis, PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 55 and Penobscot. The most likely places to see this bird are along the tidal creeks and in the marshes at Kittery, York County. Farthest inland occurrences are: for Piscataquis County, a speci- men from Dover-Foxcroft in 1926, and an undated specimen from the Sourdnahunk region (Ritchie, 1927: 14); for Somerset County, records for the vicinity of Jackman in the summer of 1937 (A. R. Phillips) and one seen there on July 7, 1940 (M. R. Lindauer), and one seen near Rockwood the last week of May, 1942 (A. S. Morrison); and for Oxford County, an adult on July 5, 1909, at Upton, and an immature bird in August or September, about 1907, at Bethel (Brewster, 1924: 203-204). There are no Aroostook County records. Although Mendall has done extensive field work in Washington County, he has not found this species there. Williamson's (1832: 128) mention of the "Skouk" was the first Maine record of this species. Boardman's first report (1862: 128) of "Summer visitant. Common. Breeds" for the Calais region, was later (1903: 309) altered to "Rare." Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli (Gmelin) Summer resident, common to numerous chiefly on inshore islands and adjacent mainland east to Jonesport, Washington County, with very few colonies any distance inland; transient in spring and fall, common coastwise and uncommon inland. Spring. The average arrival date at Portland is April 17 (Norton), and migrants are noted in the state to May 12 or later. The species arrives April 22 to 26 at Fort Fairfield, Aroostook County (Chamber- lain). Early dates are: one heard at night on March 31, 1918, at Falmouth, Cumberland County (Rich); seen on April 7, 1921, at Brunswick, Cumberland County (Walch, 1926: 16); April 7, 1944, at Brewer (W r eston); and April 8, 1922, at Brunswick (Walch, ibid.). Fall. There is a post-breeding dispersal movement noticeable in Maine by mid-August or earlier, when banded young from at least as far as Massachusetts have been taken. In early fall this species is most evenly distributed in the state. Some birds linger rather late at heronries. Most heronries "are often deserted by the first of October, but in the Fall of 1920 the birds did not leave the Whaleboat Island [Casco Bay] colony until November 12, and a pair of the birds re- mained until December 15, which is, as far as I know, the latest record of these birds in Maine" (Gross, 1923: 8). The birds usually leave the Portland region by October 20 (Norton). Other late dates are: one 56 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology seen, November 12, 1927, in Back Cove, Portland (Norton); and an immature bird seen, December 23, 1942, at South Portland (A. Williams). Breeding. Several pairs often nest in the same tree. Typically the nest is a crude platform of sticks, rather sparsely lined with grass or other fine material, and built by both sexes in two to five days. Some- times it is built on an old nest of the previous year, or of material from old nests. Immediately after the nest is completed, eggs, usually three or four, are laid at about two-day intervals. Full clutches of four eggs have been noted on May 12, 1907, at Falmouth, and May 15, 1914, at Scarborough (Norton), and Knight (1908b: 135) reported young "a few days old" as early as May 26, 1897, on Barred Island, Stonington, Hancock County. Probably most clutches are completed by May 24. Incubation, by both sexes, begins with the first egg and lasts 24 to 26 days. The young are fed by regurgitation, and fly at about six weeks. One brood is raised yearly. (Summarized from Gross, 1923, with additions.) Ecology. A colonial breeder, this crepuscular and nocturnal species feeds in marshes and in shallow water in a wide variety of island, coastal, and inland localities. On moonlit nights when the tide is low, the birds often fly out over mudflats to the water's edge to feed. Norton (1923a: 20) stated that those nesting on Metinic Isle, Knox County, "were by no means strictly nocturnal in their feeding, but gave attention to the tides, going in pairs, fives and sevens, day or night, going ashore on the ebb and returning to the island with the flood tide. At least four miles of this space is over the unbroken sea." He also stated (ibid.) that the birds formerly nesting on offshore No Mans Land, in the Matinicus group in Knox County waters, had to go an even longer distance for food. In Maine this heron usually nests in coniferous trees, placing the nest down from the top, where it is well concealed and shaded. Heronries may become large (to about 125 nests of this species), but, for reasons already given under the Great Blue Heron, their locations quite often are changed. Like the Great Blue Heron, this species often is seen perching on weirs along the Maine coast, but the birds do not feed at such places. Aside from its colonial nesting, the species is not markedly gregarious, though a few sometimes may be seen flying together. Remarks. The rate of decrease of this bird has slowed down since 1900. Probably not over 12 colonies of any size have existed in any one year in the last three decades. Gross (1923: 18-21) has summarized data on food habits of this bird over much of its range. A wide variety of animal, and some PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 57 vegetable, food is eaten. In August, 1934, a young bird of this species, shot on Smuttynose Island in the Isles of Shoals, was found to have eaten three newly hatched Herring Gulls (P. L. Wright, 1937a: 10). Yellow-crowned Night Heron Nyctanassa violacea violacea (Linnaeus) Six records. Two specimens, now in the Portland Society of Natural History are: an adult female taken April 13, 1901, at Back Cove, Portland (Swain, 1901d: 29; Brock, 1902); and a female taken April 11, 1906, at Thompson's Point, near Portland (Norton, 1906d). The date of capture for the latter specimen was given erroneously by Brownson (1906e: 85). According to E. A. Monroe (Forbush, 1925: 343), a bird was seen on August 13, 26, and 27, 1916, on Monhegan. Along the Medomak River in eastern Lincoln County, an adult was seen on July 25, 1937 (Cruickshank, 1938: 550), and another bird on July 26, 1939 (Cruickshank). An immature bird was seen during August, 1948, at Ocean Park, Old Orchard Beach, York County (Webb in Gross, 1948b: 72). American Bittern Botaurus lentiginosus (Montagu) Summer resident, uncommon to fairly common throughout, maybe including a few inshore islands but no records except for Mt. Desert Island; transient, uncommon to sometimes fairly common throughout in spring and fall. Spring. The Bittern usually is present throughout the state by April 20, and migration lasts until about May 16. It arrives April 11 to 18 at Brunswick, Cumberland County (W T alch, 1926: 16). An early inland date is April 17, 1905, at Avon, Franklin County (Sweet, 1906b: 35). April 14 is the earliest date for Presque Isle where this bird usually arrives from April 18 to 22 (Chamberlain). Fall. Migration begins by September 24, reaches its peak in early October, and very few birds remain after October 23. Brewster (1924: 190) gave October 23 of unstated year as the latest date for the Lake Umbagog region, and on the same date in 1876, Smith shot a bird at Machias, Washington County. Other late records are for a bird seen on October 28, 1904, at W'estbrook, Cumberland County, and a specimen, in Norton's collection, taken on an unstated date in December, 1887, in Cumberland County. The latest definite date, and 58 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology an interesting record, is for a bird seen "the week of December 10," 1939, on Monhegan (Mrs. J. A. Townsend). Breeding. Depending on available material, the ground nest is com- posed of cattail stalks, reeds, sticks, or other vegetation. Three to six (usually five or six) eggs are laid. Norton saw a pair, one bird dis- playing, on the early date of April 17, 1910, on Cape Elizabeth. H. Johnson (1919: 179) reported finding four fresh eggs on May 28, 1893, at Pittsfield, Somerset County. For the Umbagog region, Brewster (1924: 191-192) gave the following egg data: clutches of six, five, and three, all "quite fresh," on June 3, 1871; a clutch of five, two eggs with embryos "just beginning to form" and three without a trace on June 3, 1876; and two "quite fresh" malformed eggs on June 5, 1876. Knight (1908b: 127) reported four eggs on June 6, 1893, for unstated locality. Much earlier eggs are indicated by the following note from Mendall: "On June 4, 1946, at Snake Pond, South Brooks- ville, Hancock County, I found a nest containing four young approxi- mately two weeks old. There was a little variation in the size of the young, but not much." Near Montreal, Mousley (1939b) found that incubation apparently began with the laying of the first egg and, requiring 24 days, was probably by the female only, and that young left the nest in about two weeks, which was before they were fledged. Young are fed by regurgitation. The fledging period apparently is unrecorded. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. This crepuscular bird usually is solitary except in the breeding season. According to H. Johnson (1919: 179), it bends grasses down in swales to form a raised perch on which to spend the night. It is found in marshes, swamps, swales, moist grassy meadows, and in thickets of alders and other bushes characteristic of damp places. The nest is built in these localities, often among cattails, but almost as often in thickets and moist meadows. Brewster (1924: 190-192) reported finding three nests on a small floating island at the southern end of Lake Umbagog. Several times I have flushed fall transient birds from very small alder thickets along upland rills. Remarks. Most authorities believe that the female bird does all the nest-building, incubating, and feeding of the young. Brewster (ibid. 190) suggested polygamy in one instance where he found only one male with three nesting females. Samuels (1867: 405-406) stated that Bitterns bred in communities at the Richardson [now called Rangeley] Lakes in Franklin County. He may have seen young night herons, as he said the birds alighted in trees — a habit which Bitterns resort to but rarely — or perhaps, as at Umbagog, several may have nested quite near each other because suitable cover was not extensive. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 50 A molting male, shot at Scarborough on September 1, 1894, had eaten grasshoppers (Norton). "In the stomach of the Common Bittern, besides frogs, I have seen the field mouse (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and the large Water Beetle (Distycus) [Dytiscus]" (Norton, 1909f: 439). Other writers have mentioned frogs in this bird's diet in Maine. Their main food from pond holes in salt marshes is probably killifishes (Fundulus). The booming voice of the Bittern, sounding like someone driving a stake into mud, is heard occasionally until well into June. The reader is referred to Hardy's observations (1889) on it. Swain (1901a: 26), who found flightless young in July, 1889, near his home at Farmington, Franklin County, and kept them captive, stated that one of these gave the stake-driving vocal performance that same autumn. For interesting data on breeding at Scarborough and Machias, the reader is referred to Smith (1882-83: 104-105). Eastern Least Bittern Ixobrychus exilis exilis (Gmelin) Visitant, rare in York, Cumberland, Androscoggin, Sagadahoc, Lincoln, Knox, and Washington Counties, probably breeding in York and Cumberland. Spring. This species probably arrives in late April. One was taken on March 14, 1891, at Popham Beach, in Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County (C. F. Haley). There is a doubtful report of occurrence on May 12, 1905, at Biddeford, York County (in Brownson, 1906d: 66). Fall. This bittern probably departs in late September or early October. One was taken "early in September," 1881, at Popham Beach (Smith, 1882-83: 105), and one was shot on September 6, 1902, at Great Pond, Cape Elizabeth (Rogers). The latter specimen was one of five, actually six, taken about Portland at nearly the same time and mentioned without dates by Swain (1902c). The latest record is for a bird taken on November 13, 1907, at Lubec, Washington County, recorded by Clark (1907b). Ecology. These birds are inconspicuous inhabitants of cattail marshes and sedgy margins of ponds and streams. "They are very gentle, are diurnal and not nocturnal, nest upon the ground, do not associate in colonies, and I have never seen one alight upon a tree, although not infrequently I have observed them upon the large stalks of marsh hay, where they were industriously seeking and devouring insects" (Smith, 1882-83: 105). Remarks. "It has been found to breed in all the New-England States" (Samuels, 1867: 404). "In 1863 several pairs were breeding 60 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology at Scarboro, as also others at Falmouth [both in Cumberland County], but within the last dozen years I have not seen a single specimen in the same localities. . . I once watched a family of seven during July and August" (Smith, loc. cit.). Norton had a number of recent records for birds seen in the same region. It was listed as a rare summer resident in Androscoggin County on authority of E. E. Johnson (in Knight, 1897d: 39; 1908b: 128). If this bittern still breeds in the state, the place to look for nests would be in the marshes of York and Cumberland Counties. As elsewhere in the breeding range, nest sites undoubtedly would be in bunches of cattails, the nest being made of dry pieces of these. Probably four to seven eggs are laid in June. Outside the state, different authors give 15 to 17 days for incubation which is by both sexes. The Hedging period is not known. The first Lincoln County record was for July 21, 1948, when Cruickshank saw a bird of this species at Medomak in Bremen. Audubon (1835: 417) first listed this bird as occurring in Maine. Family CICONIIDAE Wood Ibis Mycteria americana Linnaeus Two summer records. One was shot on July 16, 1896, at Berwick, York County, and was in the collection of Professor J. Y. Stanton of Lewiston (Powers, 1897h; Knight, 1897d: 38). This collection is now at Bates College in Lewiston. Gross (1922) wrote: "We have just received a Wood Ibis taken at Cundy's Harbor, Maine — the second record for this State." This locality is in Harpswell, Cumberland County, and the date, when the bird was found dead after a storm, was August 10, 1922. The specimen is in the collection of Bowdoin College in Brunswick. Family THRESKIORNITHIDAE Eastern Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus (Linnaeus) Three spring records. One was present for about three weeks in May, 1931, at Toddy Pond in East Orland, Hancock County; it was very tame and a good photograph of it was published in the Bangor Daily News on May 21, 1931 (Norton in Gross, 1937a). Two birds were PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 61 seen first on x\pril 22, 1935, at Lubec, Washington County, by Radcliffe Pike; after a week one of them vanished and the other was seen frequently until May 6 when it was found dead, having been wantonly shot; it is now in the Bowdoin College collection (Gross, ibid.)- One was found dead, April 30, 1937, at Springfield, Penobscot County; it was in the possession of the late Walter Clayton for a while, then secured by Norton for the Portland Society of Natural History. Family PHOENICOPTERIDAE American Flamingo Phoeni copter us ruber Linnaeus Hypothetical. About 1871, the father of Everett Sinnett shot a Flamingo at Baileys Island, Harpswell, Cumberland County; the son was about eight years old at the time and remembered the bird as having a long goose-like neck and being reddish in color. Ten years later, or about 1881, another was seen there in April or May. These data were obtained by Norton from Sinnett on August 11, 1931. Family ANATIDAE Mute Swan Cygnus olor (Gmelin) One record, probably a feral bird, aside from captives of this Old World species which have been kept in parks for ornamental purposes. A bird, not pinioned and showing no signs of captivity, was found weak and famished on November 29, 1937, at Falmouth, Cumberland County. Norton examined it and, after it died in captivity, obtained the specimen for the Portland Society of Natural History. Remarks. A swan of this species, seen for several days in the spring of 1918 on the Spurwink marshes in Scarborough, undoubtedly was an escaped bird, as was also the one seen with tame ducks on September 30, 1917, at Great Diamond Island in Casco Bay (Norton). Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus (Linnaeus) One record. A specimen was taken on September 10, 1903, at Mud Lake in the town of Alexander, Washington County. It was reported first by Swain (1904a: 1), who wrote that the taxidermist who mounted 62 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology it did "not think it a captive bird as it bore no marks of captivity . . . Its measurements were, length, 3 feet and 11.75 inches; wing, 17.75 inches; extent, 5 feet, and 9 inches." Clarence Clark (1905a: 23), who identified the bird as Cygnus cygnus, wrote that he had purchased it for his collection housed at Lubec, Washington County. He stated that he had carefully secured all the facts concerning its capture, and added: "It is easily distinguished by the yellow covering of the lores, and extending over the larger portion of the upper mandible, while its near relative columbianus has the yellow only on the lores, and buccinator having no yellow." Norton saw the specimen and concurred as to its specific identity. Remarks. A photograph of the mounted specimen was the frontis- piece of the March, 1906, issue (vol. 8, no. 1) of the Journal of the Maine Ornithological Society. This picture subsequently was reprinted by Knight (1908b: opp. 124). Clark (1907a: 79) reported that he had sold the specimen to the John Lewis Childs Museum at Floral Park, New York. Much of the Childs collection later was discarded or de- stroyed, after having been in the Brooklyn Museum for a period. Perhaps this specimen is in existence yet in one of the display cases, which are covered with boards and in storage at this museum, but now (1948) are the property of the Children's Museum of Brooklyn. Knight (1910a) was misinformed that this specimen was in the Bowdoin College collection. If the proposed small Icelandic race of this species should be recog- nized, it would seem, from the wing measurement given above, that the Maine specimen belongs in that category. This species was ex- terminated as a breeding bird in southern Greenland (Bent, 1925: 278). Whistling Swan Cygnus columbianus (Ord) Transient, rather rare in spring and fall. Spring. All records are: an adult, shot on March 29, 1908, at W r ebb Pond in W r altham and Eastbrook, Hancock County (Knight, 1910a), is now in the Portland Society of Natural History; five "white swans," mentioned in a dispatch in the April 2, 1918, Portland Evening Express, as "recently" having been seen flying over Belfast, W T aldo County; one seen on April 5, 1926, over Merrymeeting Bay, with a flock of Canada Geese which it deserted to fly down the Kennebec River, and reported by several persons (Norton); two seen on April 28, 1939, at Merry- meeting Bay (Earl Brown) ; eight seen on April 30, 1932, near Lewiston, Androscoggin County (May, 1932b: 270); and in late April of 1928, PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 63 two were seen by many persons, about Pleasant Point, Merrymeeting Bay, where they remained for more than a week. Fall. All records are: on September 29, 1929, according to reports of federal warden Bertrand E. Smith, two swans were at Merrymeeting Bay, and two at Moosehead Lake; six seen over Lake Auburn, Andro- scoggin County, in early October, 1920 (S. Waterman); at Lower Kezar Lake in Fryeburg, Oxford County, three were seen on October 27, 1917, eighteen appeared the next day, an adult male and a young female being secured from this flock for the State Museum at Augusta, and at Lake Auburn, a flock of 49 birds was seen on the last day of the month (C. E. Miller, 1918: 68); an immature bird shot near Brick Island, Merrymeeting Bay, in November, 1881 (Smith, 1882-83: 124- 125); one shot, in late November, 1919, at Swans Island, Hancock County, by a gunner who supposedly mistook it for a white goose and, on finding that it was a swan, left it in the water where it had fallen (Norton); one, reported by several observers, at and near Merry- meeting Bay for two or three days in late November, 1944, and seen by Cottam (1945) on the 28th; and in the fall of 1929, one caught alive near Crumple Island, south of Jonesport, Washington, and kept in captivity, but what became of it is not known (Norton). Remarks. Swans were mentioned by Rosier (1605; 1887: 159) as having been seen in Knox County or adjacent waters in May or June, 1605. Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 79) stated that ''Hookers or wild-Swan*" occurred at Scarborough during his stay there, which was from 1638 to 1639 and 1663 to 1671. In editing the journals of Paul Coffin, J. Howard wrote (Coffin, 1856: 275) that in "Lovwell's Pond and the waters in that vicinity, swans were found by the early settlers of Fryeburg [Oxford County] and the adjacent towns." W. Goold (1886: 116) wrote: "Up to the beginning of this [19th] century, wild swans were among the waterfowl frequenting the small ponds of Cumberland County. At the time mentioned Richard Knight, of the present town of Falmouth, shot a white swan; one of a pair which came to the Duck pond [now Highland Lake] in Westbrook every season. None have been seen there since. About the same time William McGill, of Standish, killed one of the same species while flying from one pond to another." Although none of these early writers gave the species, it is hardly to be doubted that they referred to Whistling Swans. The November, 1881, record for Brick Island, cited above, was considered hypothetical by Knight (1897d: 137; 1908b: 648-649), but the specimen was seen and checked by Spinney for Norton, so the record is a valid one. The specimen, in the collection of Charles Greenleaf of Bath, subsequently was destroyed by fire. The word "Swan" is part of the place name of one or more islands, 64 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology hills, towns, ponds, lakes, and brooks in Maine. The evidence that any one of these was so named because of the former occurrence of swans is tenuous. In the case of the islands, one source of origin may be a corruption of the word sowangan (variably spelled), which is an Abnaki word meaning eagle, and may have been used by the Indians to indicate favorite nesting places of the Bald Eagle. In some other cases, the origin may be traced to romantic sources. For example, Swan Lake, in Waldo County, is a prettier name than its former one of Goose Pond. Trumpeter Swan Cygnus buccinator Richardson Hypothetical. "Some years ago (prior to 1868) a swan was seen at Scarboro, Maine during several consecutive days. The late Caleb G. Loring, Jr., to whom the common swan (C. americanus Aud.) was well known, observed this bird repeatedly fly from the [Saco] bay and circle about over the marsh high in the air, uttering cries which led Mr. Loring to believe the bird to be a trumpeter swan" (Smith, 1882-83:224). C. W. Beebe (in Coale, 1915: 87), recording specimens having been in the New York Zoological Park, wrote that one was "from Lewiston, Maine (Nov. 25, 1901, found exhausted)." Norton, in an attempt to corroborate this record, wrote to Lee S. Crandall at the Park. Mr. Crandall's reply, October 27, 1921, stated that the Park's files recorded the specimen as purchased and received, but, "Whether or not it was actually caught in Maine, I cannot say, as it was secured with a number of other birds, probably from a dealer." Eleven other states, including some western ones, have Lewiston as a place name. Eastern Canada Goose Branta canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus) Transient, more abundant in spring than in fall; summer resident, rare breeder (wild, also feral birds), and uncommon non-breeder (? all feral birds); winter resident, uncommon on salt water. Spring. Although small flocks have been seen flying along the coast in the latter part of January, these probably were wintering birds. Migration begins by February 20, the birds concentrating on salt water. In the latter part of the month, and to early April when the ice goes out, flocks fly to Merrymeeting Bay, remain on the ice a while, then return to salt water. After the ice leaves the bay, thousands of PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 65 these birds may be found here, with a peak population usually present April 11 to 16. By mid-April, many have departed, but large numbers remain for another eight or ten days, and small flocks have lingered as late as May 16 and, once or twice, into June. Some of the later migrating flocks stop briefly on inland lakes, for the ice generally is out by early May. Fall. Fewer birds pass at this season and the flight is mainly near the coast ; perhaps also, some pass by at sea from Nova Scotia to Cape Cod. Most transients are seen October 10 to November 20, but migration sometimes continues well into December. On December 15, 1917, several very large flocks flew over Portland (Norton). Flight years. Of the incomplete data at hand, the following seem worth recording: 1S94, "very plentiful" in spring in Casco Bay (Willard, 1895: 184); 1906, unusually numerous in spring in Casco Bay and eastward (Norton) ; 1909, very plentiful in fall in Cumberland County (Rogers); 1911, the third week of March, very large numbers present in Casco Bay (Pillsbury) and about Damariscotta, Lincoln County (F. M. David); 1920, unusually abundant in spring at Merry- meeting Bay (Spinney); and in 1941, more than usual present there in fall (various observers). The flight was very small throughout Maine in the spring of 1908. Breeding and summer. The ground nest, not far from water and sheltered by shrubbery, is a depression with leaves, grasses, and similar material added, and a lining of down. Probably five or six eggs make a clutch. In Blinois, Kossack (1947: 125) found that the incubation period usually is 26 days, but may vary from 25 to 27. The gander stays nearby during incubation, and both parents tend the young, which are fledged in not less than six weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Maine data are scant, but of the following two records, the latter indicates later nesting than is reported for similar latitudes elsewhere. In recording the data, Mendall (1945b) stated that they referred to "strictly wild" birds. The earliest of these was in 1939 when a pan- nested near Old Town, Penobscot County, and the goose was shot by a poacher. She had laid five eggs. From a plane flying low over Chemquassibamticook Lake in northwestern Piscataquis County, George J. Stobie and William Turgeon saw two broods, each ac- companied by both parents, in early July, 1944. The men landed and, from a boat, observed one of the broods (four downy young) at a distance of 50 feet. In 1948 I was told on reliable authority that, for several years prior to about 1944, at least one pair nested successfully at Shallow Lake in Townships 13 and 14, Range 7, Piscataquis County. Illegal shooting of adults and fledged young one year in August ended nesting at this place. 66 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology There are fewer records of Canada Geese for June than for any other month. This is due perhaps to the relative scarcity of the non-breeding birds and to the secretiveness of any breeding ones. The few small flocks occasionally reported in June probably are escaped or semi- captive birds and, perhaps, young non-breeding ones. Undoubtedly some of the single birds seen are sick or injured individuals. Some years several flocks have been seen in August, generally on or near salt water but sometimes well inland. A small flock spent most of the summer of 1941 near Presque Isle (Chamberlain). Winter. Stephens (1934: 156-157), reminiscing about Norway, Oxford County, told of a flock of geese which became frozen in a pond there in November, 1843, and of these, 19 were killed with a pole. From about December 5 to February 20, small flocks are seen on salt water. These usually contain less than a dozen birds, occasionally 20 or 25, and one flock of about 50 was seen by J. R. Wallace on January 31, 1932, in Casco Bay. Inland, but not far from tidewater, two were killed the first week in January, 1884, at Holden, Penobscot County (Hardy). Ecology. This bird, found on salt, brackish, and fresh waters, in- cluding rivers, ponds and lakes, feeds about the shores and on bottom vegetation in shallow water. It sometimes feeds on grass on uplands, but does so far less commonly in Maine than elsewhere. In winter, flocks occur on salt mud flats, where some vegetation can be obtained at low tide. If the species increases as a breeding bird in the state, the nesting habitat probably will be a rather wide variety of situations close to fresh water, including islands in lakes and ponds. This bird is highly gregarious in migrations, in winter, and reported slightly so in the breeding season. Remarks. This goose nested in Maine in colonial times, then ap- parently was absent as a strictly wild bird for a long period. Rosier (1605; 1887: 126), who was with Waymouth among the Georges Islands, Knox County, in part of May and June in 1605, stated that Indians brought four goslings for barter. Undoubtedly these were Canada Geese. Ridlon (1895 : 438) wrote that this species occasionally nested about ponds in York County in early times, when their eggs were taken and hatched under domesticated geese. Cyrus Eaton (1851: 164) told of a pair of wild geese that, in 1776 and for many years thereafter nested on an island in Seven-tree Pond in Warren, Knox County, and which were finally "driven from their old domain by the vandal hand of sport." Coffin (1856: 345), in his journal of a missionary tour in Maine in 1797, wrote of Moosehead Lake as "a place in which wild geese are supposed to hatch their young in great numbers." About as indefinite as Coffin, Audubon (1835: 1) wrote that geese were said to nest in the interior of Maine and Massachusetts. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 67 In 1915 a pair nested at Freeport, Cumberland County, and in 1921 a pair at Merrymeeting Bay, near the old Bay Bridge (Norton). In 1927 a pair raised five young at a small pond in Westport, Lincoln County, later moving to Sheepscot Bay where all were shot on the opening day of the hunting season (Spinney). A pair nested at Merry- meeting Bay in 1930, and two pairs in 1932 when I saw them with young, two-thirds grown, on July 29. Perhaps all these records are for feral birds, as were the reports investigated by Mendall (1945b), who wrote: "In the lower Kennebec River valley of south-central Maine, and in the coastal portion of Washington County in the extreme eastern part of the state, there have been frequent reports during the last decade of nests or broods of this species. All reports that were investigated, however, have been found to pertain to the nesting of released or escaped semi-domesticated birds. A number of releases of pen-reared geese have been made in the vicinity of Lubec, in Washing- ton County, by a sportsman who for several years maintained a small waterfowl sanctuary. Moreover, from time to time, wing-clipped birds escaped from the sanctuary and occasionally nested in the general vicinity. Similar dispersals have occurred in southern and central Maine from pen-reared stock." With the beginning of spring protection in 1916, geese have lingered much later in the state at this season. They build up fairly large popu- lations for a while in favored places, especially in Cumberland, Saga- dahoc, and Lincoln Counties. Occasionally very large numbers are reported at Merrymeeting Bay, but 12,000 to 14,000 is above the usual peak of the spring population, and I doubt that over 20,000 ever have been present at any one time. Norton (1909f : 439) reported rhizomes of eelgrass {Zoster a) and sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca) from digestive tracts of Canada Geese. On December 8, 1932, he saw a goose pulling up roots of salt marsh-grass (Spartina alterniflora) at Back Cove, Portland. The heaviest bird of which I have record was a spring gander weigh- ing over 13 pounds. On April 16, 1910, Norton weighed nine geese shot at Cape Elizabeth, and found weights as follows (only three were sexed): three females, 5}^, 6^, and 6^ pounds; unsexed birds, 6%, 7M) 7^4, 8^4, 8J/2, and 9 pounds. The average was about seven pounds six ounces. Number of tail feathers ranged from 16 to 18. (See com- ments on small Canada Geese under Richardson's Canada Goose.) Partial albinism has been noted several times among geese at Merry- meeting Bay. Here, on April 21, 1932, 1 saw three having white bodies and chin-patches and blackish heads and necks. Two Canada Geese yield a pound of feathers which, about 50 years ago, sold for 25 cents. In the 1870's, geese sold for a dollar each in the markets of Portland and elsewhere. 68 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Goose bones (species not stated) have been reported from at least one shell-heap by Moorehead (1922: 166). Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80) wrote: "of the skins of the necks of grey Geese with their Bills the Indians makes Mantles and Coverlets sowing them together and they shew prettily." That "geese" were abundant in "winter" on Monhegan (H. L. Shaw, 1903) is an error. Richardson's Canada Goose Branta canadensis hutchinsii (Richardson) One record and several very questionable reports of occurrence. On April 20, 1947, one was captured alive at Swan Island, in the Kennebec River east of Bowdoinham, Sagadahoc County. It was kept for about a week before being released at Mere Point in Brunswick, Cumberland County. A photograph and measurements of the bird have been pub- lished by Gross (1947J). Remarks. Audubon (1835: 17) wrote: "It is alleged in the State of Maine that a distinct species of Canada Goose resides there, which is said to be much smaller than the one [Eastern Canada Goose] now under your notice, and is described as resembling it in all other particulars." Locally, he wrote, it was called the "Flight Goose," and occurred only in migrations. Further on (ibid. 526), under "Hutchins's Goose," he called it the "Winter or Flight Goose" of Maine gunners, and repeated that it resembled the "large and common kind in almost every particular except its size." He saw no specimens. Audubon's writings were well known to Everett Smith, who reported (Smith, 1882-83 : 125) that he had shot the present "variety" in Maine. Webster (1892b: 174) wrote: "While at Line Daniels' [a Portland taxidermist], a specimen of Hutchins Goose that had been shot in Maine was brought in to be mounted." A specimen, reported by Brock (in Knight, 1897d: 37; 1908b: 123) as having been taken on November 13, 1894, at Great Pond, Cape Elizabeth, was supposed to be in the Brock collection at the Portland Society of Natural History. W 7 hen I checked this collection, however, the nearest to hutchinsii that I found was a rather small individual of the subspecies canadensis. Brock also stated (ibid.) : "I have seen a specimen said to have been shot in the Rangeley region." Three birds, alleged to have been of this race, were received in the spring of 1899, from the vicinity of Portland, by John Lord (Lord in Knight, 1908b: 123). There is a sight record for April 12, 1906, in the Portland region (in Brownson, 1907c: 36). For the same season and locality, Walter Rich PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 69 (1907a: 270) stated. "This spring I have had four of these so called 'short necked geese' of which one was doubtful, and three undoubtedly of the present sub-species." Fall flights of the Eastern Canada Goose generally contain a number of small individuals, called "Hutchins Goose" and/or "Lesser Canada Goose" by the gunners. McAtee (1945: 462), citing E. B. Sawyer, added the word "brant" as a name used at Jonesport, Washington County. Rogers, a gunner of much experience and who had shot what he termed "Hutchins Goose" in Cumberland County, told Norton that these birds weighed eight to ten pounds. Actually the weight is three to six pounds. Independently, both Norton and I have examined some of the small geese, shot in Cumberland County and at Merry- meeting Bay, and have found that they were, without a single excep- tion, smaller specimens of the Eastern Canada Goose. The existence of local names for small geese in Maine can hardly be construed as sufficient evidence of the occurrence of the race hutchinsii, and I find no concrete proof that this bird occurred in the northeast more frequently in the past, as suggested by Forbush (1925: 295), F. H. Allen (1940: 77), and McAtee (1945). American Brant Branta bernicla hrota (Miiller) Transient, abundant in spring and fall, the main flight passing well offshore but others reaching our coast, especially in bad weather, and large numbers often lingering late in spring in Washington County coastal waters; non-breeding summer resident, rare on salt water. One inland record. Spring. In bad weather some birds occur at inshore points all along the coast, but normally the flight is from Cape Cod across the Gulf of Maine to the Bay of Fundy and adjacent waters. First arrivals at coastal points in Maine are seen from March 7 to 20, usually nearer the latter date. Most birds depart by April 16, although many others, including late arrivals, linger regularly at favorite feeding places in Washington County waters (sometimes over 1,000 near Lubec) into the first week of May or even later. Dates later than May 10 for southwestern Maine are: three, May 16, 1918, near Richmond Island, off Cape Elizabeth, one, May 16, 1922, in Casco Bay, five, May 18, 1937, at Scarborough, one shot on May 21, 1914, at Peaks Island in Casco Bay, and 12 seen on May 24, 1939, at Scarborough (Norton); two very large flocks seen on May 26, 1784, as they flew over Portland (Smith and Deane, 1849: 356); and about 30 on May 31, 1946, at Scarborough (G. Webb). 70 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Fall. In fall the Brant follow the reverse of the spring route, passing by chiefly offshore. In bad weather, flocks, sometimes containing an estimated 2,000 birds, have occasionally spent some days at the eelgrass beds in Casco Bay. Usually they appear after October 22, the earliest record being for nine birds seen by Smith on October 16, 1879, at Scarborough. Flocks occur throughout November, later records being for three (one shot) on December 9, 1926, at Scarborough (E. S. Monroe), a large flight shortly before December 14, 1929, at Petit Manan Point, Washington County (B. E. Smith), and several seen on December 15, 1893, at Popham Beach, Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County (Spinney). Summer. All records are: one seen on June 9, 1930, in eastern Casco Bay (E. Sinnett); one seen on June 13, 1937, in Muscongus Bay (Cruickshank) ; one, quite unwary, seen on June 19, 1941, at Scar- borough (Norton) ; one, apparently healthy, seen on June 21, 1938, near Vinalhaven, Knox County (R. Tousey) ; one seen to fly a quarter mile, July 12, 1931, in Muscongus Bay (Norton) ; two seen on July 20, 1895, at St. George, Knox County (Rackliff); three, apparently healthy, seen on July 30, 1945, at Cove Island, Addison, Washington County (Weston) ; and, in eastern Casco Bay, two seen all summer to August 9 or later, in 1931, and a small flock on August 9 (E. Sinnett), which, from the date, would hardly seem to refer to fall transients. This flock undoubtedly was the same seen by Rich on September 21 in the same area. Ecology. This is a salt water bird, feeding on eelgrass (Zostera marina), sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca), and, according to Norton, on flotsam at sea. Eelgrass grows from about mean low tide to perhaps 12 feet lower, so that the birds may get it on the mud flats at low tide, or by 'up-ending' for it in shallow water. When not feeding, at high tide and at night, the flocks move farther from shore. The strong tides in the Bay of Fundy prevent growth of much eelgrass there, so that the inshore Brant are concentrated mainly in more sheltered Maine bays a short distance to the westward. Remarks. The Brant population is subject to fluctuations, as shown by J. C. Phillips (1932), who tabulated data from Massachusetts gunning records. Eelgrass, the dietary mainstay of this bird, is subject to periods of scarcity which, in turn, seriously affect the population of the species. This grass is now recovering from an almost complete disappearance along the Atlantic coast, which occurred in 1931. I am not aware that the causative agent for its near disappearance is known definitely. There were many more Brant in 1931 than at present, although the population is increasing. Some Maine gunners consider Brant difficult to approach by sculling, for the birds tend to avoid large floating objects. palmer: maine birds 71 Barnacle Goose Branta leucopsis (Bechstein) Hypothetical. Audubon (1835: 609) wrote: "Several old gunners on the coast of Massachusetts and Maine, who were Englishmen by birth assured me that they had killed Barnacles there, and that these birds brought a higher price in the markets than Common Brent Geese." T. M. Brewer (1875: 452) was confident that all New England records were of escaped captives. J. A. Allen (1878: 34) wrote: "I understand specimens have recently been taken near Portland, Maine." Later, Allen again (1886: 233) listed Maine as a place of capture, but this cannot be confirmed now. Common White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons albifrons (Scopoli) One record. In early November, 1922, a goose flew against an auto- mobile near Wiscassett, Lincoln County, and was killed. It was dressed and eaten, but the wings were secured by T. A. James, then curator of the State Museum at Augusta, who identified the bird. Forbush (1925: 291) gave Augusta as the place of capture, but the correct locality was stated by Norton (1926a: 91). Remarks. There is an unconfirmed sight record for a flock of about a dozen, seen and heard by F. Johnson in April (before the 8th), 1913, flying over Great Pond, Cape Elizabeth (Norton). Boardman's statement (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 1: 451) of "occasional occurrence near Calais," was later altered by him (in Knight, 1897d: 137) to indicate occurrence at Grand Manan; therefore the statement, "Boardman says it occurs in Maine" (Forbush 1912: 176), is incorrect. Lesser Snow Goose Chen hyperborea hyperborea (Pallas) Fall transient, rather rare, occurring most often near or on the coast, singly or in pairs and less often in small flocks. All snow geese occurring in fall in the state are believed to be of this subspecies. Fall. Although there are September sight records, most occurrences have been in October. Extreme dates for birds identified to subspecies are October 4 to December 11. Ecology. This goose has been observed along the coast, feeding on shore and in waters where eelgrass grows. It also has occurred inland 72 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology on lakes, ponds, and in fields, feeding on both aquatic and terrestrial vegetation. Records. The following are for identified specimens: one killed in December, 1880, near Portland (N. C. Brown, 1882c: 2) ; male shot on October 4, 1893, at Toddy Pond, Hancock County (Brewster, 1897); one shot at Pushaw Pond, Penobscot County, and another at Nicatous, Hancock County, both prior to 1897 (Hardy in Knight, 1897d: 36); one shot on October 10, 1897, and its companion a few days later, between Richmond and Merrymeeting Bay (Knight, 1898b: 14; 1908b: 120); one shot the week of November 16-21, 1908, at Gorham, Cumberland County (Norton, 1909a; corrected, 1913: 575); five shot on October 2, 1915, at Cape Elizabeth, by F. H. Darling (Norton, 1916: 381); three shot October 1, 1923, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 15); a dead bird, picked up on December 11, 1929, near Turner, Androscoggin County, and seen by Norton in the Turner Natural History Society collection; a male shot on October 16, 1932, in Fal- mouth, Cumberland County, and in the Walter Rich collection (Nor- ton) ; and an exhausted bird picked up in a field on December 6, 1940, at Poland, Androscoggin County (J. Stickney). All other fall records for snow geese, not identified, are: one shot on October 18, 1881, at Glenburn, Penobscot County, and another on November 25, 1881, at Hallowell, Kennebec County (Smith, 1882-83: 125); one seen on October 9, 1911, at Cape Elizabeth, by Rogers (Norton, 1913: 575); a number seen on September 28, 1915, at Great Pond, Cape Elizabeth, and mentioned in the records of the Great Pond Club (Norton); one shot in September, 1916, at Merrymeeting Bay, weighing under four pounds (E. Brown) ; two shot on October 12, 1927, at Merrymeeting Bay, by Donald Percy of Boston and Vaughn Allen of Concord, one of the birds reported as weighing l l /2 pounds (Norton) ; and a flock of perhaps 50 present in November and December, 1931, about Chebeague Island and Long Island in Casco Bay (various observers; newspaper reports). Greater Snow Goose Chen hyperborea atlantica Kennard Spring transient, rather numerous at Merrymeeting Bay and uncom- mon elsewhere. All snow geese occurring in spring in the state are believed to be of this subspecies. Spring. Extreme dates for identified birds are April 7 to 30. Ex- treme dates for sight records are March 29 to May 8. Ecology. This bird, partial to shallow or estuarine waters where there is a soft or silt bottom, feeds chiefly on submerged roots or sprouts PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 73 of vegetation. As associates of Eastern Canada Geese which remain in numbers for a long period in spring, the snow geese linger with them on salt water and move into the shallow brackish water of Merrymeeting Bay when the ice goes out. Records. The following are for identified specimens : a female shot on April 7, 1890, at Heron Island, Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County, and received in the flesh by Batchelder (1890) ; one shot on April 25, 1903, at Back River in Georgetown, Sagadahoc County, and in the Spinney collection (Spinney in Swain, 1904e: 69) at Augusta; one shot on April 22, 1904, at Georgetown and identified by Spinney (Norton); one shot on April 30, 1906, at Lubec, Washington County, and in the collection of Clarence H. Clark (Clark, 1906: 48); a flock of about 30 seen by Pillsbury and others at Scarborough on April 4, 1913, and the next day, from one of several smaller flocks reported in different parts of Casco Bay, four birds shot at Great Chebeague Island, the head of one being secured and identified by Norton (1913: 575-576); and a male, from the many birds present at Merrymeeting Bay in the spring of 1939, picked up sick and, after dying in captivity, sent to the Portland Society of Natural History (Norton). All other records of snow geese in spring are : a flock of eight or nine, in the spring of 1800, at Matinicus Island, Knox County, and all shot (Williamson, 1832 : 144) ; a flock, estimated at 200 birds, April 13, 1908, on the ice at Long Pond in Harrison and Bridgton, and the following day, on the ice at Sebago Lake, all in Cumberland County (Mead, 1908a) ; a flock of about 20 on April 4, 1913, at Pine Point, Scarborough, and the following day, from one of several small flocks in Casco Bay, four birds shot by I. W. Pillsbury (Norton); a flock of about 30 in April, 1925, in Casco Bay (J. R. Wallace); two small flocks totalling about 25 birds, in late March or early April, 1926, in Casco Bay (E. Sinnett); at Merrymeeting Bay, one on April 26, 1930 (D. V. Alexander), 11 on April 20, 1931 (Palmer), one on April 10, one on the 13th, 18 on the 19th, about the same number on the 20th, and one on May 8, in 1932 (W. C. Baker and Palmer), and two on March 29, 1937 (Gross) ; eight present for about a week and last seen on April 18, 1938, at Winn, Penobscot County (F. Dingley); small flocks, reported to Norton, in various sections of southwestern Maine from April 16 to 18, 1939, with a maximum of 100 birds at Merrymeeting Bay on the 16th, of which the last left on the 28th (except the sick male noted above) ; for the same year, Gross estimated small numbers present at the bay prior to April 13, with 400 to 500 on that date and all departed by the 15th, and H. C. Kennington saw 200 there on the 20th; 14 birds seen at the bay on April 6, 1940 (Gross) ; one with a Blue Goose seen for several days in April, 1942, about Orono, Penobscot County, and feed- 74 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology ing with gulls at a dump on the 21st (Mendall) ; and a flock, estimated to contain 1,000 birds, seen on April 7, 1944, near Seguin, and flocks of one to several hundred at other coastal points the same season, as reported to Gross. Remarks. Of several records of snow geese, published without refer- ence to season of occurrence, that of Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 79-80) is worthy of mention. He stated that three kinds of geese — the gray, the white, and the brant — occurred at Scarborough in his time, and the white geese were lean and tough and lived a long time, whence the proverb, "Older than a white Goose." Inadvertently the scientific name for this subspecies was used by Norton (1909a) for a specimen of the smaller race, an error that he later (1913: 575) corrected. Blue Goose Chen caerulescens (Linnaeus) Five records. C. E. Clarke (1916) saw and examined a mounted specimen in the possession of Walter Conley, of Isle au Haut, who had shot the bird on November 13, 1913, at nearby Little Spoon Island. One was taken on September 27, 1924, at Lubec, Washington County, and added to the collection of Clarence H. Clark of that town (Norton, 1925c). Near Brewer, one of these geese, accompanied by a Snow Goose, was seen for several days prior to April 16, 1942, when it was caught in a muskrat trap, and the skin was presented to the Bowdoin College collection (Gross, 1943). One was captured in a duck trap and banded, on April 15, 1948, at Little Swan Island, near Richmond, Sagadahoc County, and on the 25th, two were seen in the vicinity (Powell, 1948). Remarks. Williamson (1832: 143) listed the "bluish Goose," under the name "Anser Caerulescens," as occurring in Maine. In commenting on this, Norton (1925c) wrote: "Since he was a devotee of fowling and says 'we have seen three species' there seems no reason to doubt that he had himself seen the bird." On authority of Boardman, it was stated in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884, 1:438) that this bird occurred "occasionally in the neighborhood of Calais," and that a specimen had been taken at Grand Manan. Undoubtedly this report was the basis for the state- ment by Elliott (1898: 43, 44) that the species had been taken on the coast of Maine. In his later list, however, Boardman (1903) omitted mention of this species altogether. A young Blue Goose was taken on October 2, 1896, at "Lake Umbagog, Maine" (Brewster, 1897). Knight (1897d: 137; 1908b: 648) PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 75 reported the same specimen as having been taken at "Lake Umbagog, New Hampshire," the locality later being verified by Brewster (1924: 186) who pointed out that the bird had been shot about 200 yards west of the Maine boundary, in the Township of Cambridge, New Hampshire. As in the case of the Brewer bird, mentioned above, this one also was accompanied by a Snow Goose. Sheld Duck Tadorna tadoma (Linnaeus) Hypothetical. Included (in Gross, 1948b: 71) in a list of birds "ob- served by Mr.. Byron W. Barker at Verona Island [Hancock County] in the Penobscot River between May 30 and September 1, 1948," is "Sheld Drake (Tadorna tadorna)." No further details about it are given. Common Mallard Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos Linnaeus Transient, uncommon in spring and fall throughout, except some- times rather numerous in fall at Merrymeeting Bay; winter resident, uncommon but regular along the coast ; rare in summer, with no nests reported. Spring. Whereas some wintering birds may move about in the Portland region as early as mid-March when the weather is warm and sunny (Norton), migration occurs throughout April and to at least May 8. Fall. The southward movement probably occurs in October. During some recent years, many Mallards have gathered at Merry- meeting Bay, the first birds usually arriving about September 1, with the population increasing until the third week of the month, and the last departing by October 27. Not over 200 have been reported from there for any single day. Summer. The few summer records, which appear to be for wild birds, are for Penobscot and Washington Counties. Winter. Small numbers occur regularly throughout this season on salt water at points along the coast into Washington County. The entire population probably does not exceed 100 birds. Ecology. The Mallard is found on bodies of water of all sizes, from tiny ponds to large lakes, and from pond-holes in salt marshes to rather exposed coastal waters. It feeds in shallow water (under four feet) and along the shores. In the hunting season, the bird is very 76 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology wary and spends most of the daylight hours well out from shore on open water. It associates most commonly with Black Ducks, Pintails, and Ring-necked Ducks. Remarks. At what is now Saco, York County, Christopher Levett (1628; 1847: 82) listed "ducks and mallard" among birds eaten in the winter of 1623-24. Since he was extolling the resources of the New World, and undoubtedly knew the Mallard in England, his inclusion of it may have been inaccurate and intended for home readers. Probably the first unquestionable mention of Maine occurrence is that of Audu- bon (1835: 164), who stated that this duck was rare east of Boston, and was not seen beyond Portland. It is certain that the Mallard never was common in Maine since records began. At Scarborough, Loring shot thousands of game birds during the years 1842-1854, but his journals listed only seven of these ducks killed. Records of the Great Pond Club, at Cape Elizabeth, show two or three (once five) birds killed per year there from 1892 to 1903. Since then, and particularly since about 1916, there has been a gradual increase of both transient and wintering birds. Whereas two decades ago, Walch (1926: 10) stated that seldom was more than a pair found at Merrymeeting Bay, at present (1948) the species may be called numerous there, at least in some years. Although the Mallard is not ordinarily a diving bird, Norton twice saw semi-domesticated ones diving in water not over four feet deep in a pond in Portland. On the first occasion, June 15, 1917, a bird made several dives and "once swam some distance under water," and on May 3, 1930, another made five ten-second submergences. According to newspaper reports, about 200 of these ducks, raised at the state game farm at Dry Mills, were liberated in Maine in May, 1940. A female, shot November 4, 1916, at Scarborough, was "gorged with seeds of Zostera marina!'' (Norton). Black Duck Anas rubripes Brewster Summer resident, common to numerous throughout, except on some coastal islands; transient, abundant in spring and fall; winter resident, common to abundant coastwise, including waters about islands some distance from shore. Some individuals may be resident. Spring. Migration begins in March when many wintering birds leave early in the month, most of these departing by the 25th. Other birds arrive from points farther south, largest numbers in southwestern PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 77 counties being seen from April 4 to 11, and migration continues throughout April. Fall. In early August, family groups gather at favorable feeding places, probably not far from nesting sites. Before September 1, there is a definite population shift when numerous family groups join those at such places as Merrymeeting Bay and the Scarborough marshes. At the former locality, the population reaches its peak by September 25 and the last of the birds leave by October 24. In the meantime, other arrivals from northerly points begin to appear in early October, and migration continues to about November 24. Very often there is a sizeable flight in early November. Migration in this month is mainly, though by no means exclusively, restricted to coastal counties. In his valuable study of this species, Hagar (1946a: 116, 124) con- cluded that many spring and fall transients take the direct route over water from Cape Cod to Nova Scotia and vice versa, thus bypassing Maine. Flight years. Periods of unusual abundance in Cumberland County were: 1S74, in October, and 190S, in mid-September (Rogers); 1924, in November (Norton) ; and 1925, from late March into April in upper Casco Bay (J. R. Wallace). The species was scarce in this county in the fall of 1912, and much more so in the fall of 1926 after a very cold spring (Norton). Breeding. Adult Black Ducks pair in the winter months, thereafter traveling together even in flocks. In the breeding season, the species is found widely distributed on the mainland and on some marine islands. Although in New Brunswick, H. S. Peters (1941a: 4) found some nests in tree holes, and one in a Crow's nest overhanging a creek, all Maine nests for which I have data were located on the ground. Gen- erally sheltered by shrubbery, nests are found in a wide variety of situations (often in woods), and, according to Mendall, may be located at points up to a mile away from water. (Also see Ecology.) The nest, in a depression, is composed of some grass, dead leaves, or other vegetation, and lined with much down from the parent bird. Clutches contain six to 13 (average nine plus) eggs (Mendall). Twenty clutches in coastal counties were completed from April 13 to May 14, but inland, laying continues into late May. Incubation (28 days, though perhaps variable) begins after the last egg is laid. Mendall found that young are fledged in 55 to 60 days, a period which is con- siderably longer than stated in published reports. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. Black Ducks have wintered regularly at Back Cove, Portland, at least since the early 1870's, but not in any numbers until about 1910. Norton's monthly censuses at this locality for the years 78 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 1927 to 1937, in which there are gaps, show great variation from year to year. On January 3, 1931, he estimated 6,800 birds present; on January 25, 1936, 240 birds; and on January 28, 1937, only 331. He found that the population in the middle of February was consistently lower than a month earlier. Winter is perhaps the most interesting season to watch these birds, since posturing and display are most in evidence in January and February. Ecology. Contrary to widespread belief, these birds often nest in woods and, not infrequently, at considerable distances from fresh water (Mendall). Gross (1945c) found that on some marine islands where this duck nests, there was no regular supply of fresh water. Nests on low ground often are destroyed by spring floods, this factor being the outstanding cause of nesting failures. This duck is gregarious outside the nesting season; it associates mainly with other dabblers. In July and August there is a molting period when many marshy pools and quiet coves are literally covered with shed feathers. At this time, the flightless adult birds, if pursued, may run into bordering thickets or woods to hide. Such pools and coves, providing favorite foods, continue to be frequented until covered by ice. During the hunting season on tidewater, these ducks spend most of the day at sea, coming in at night to feed along the shores, in shallow water, and on the flats. In winter they feed on roots of vegetation on the flats, or even on drifting seaweed (Norton). Large wintering flocks, near islands some miles out from shore, have been observed feeding about kelp-covered ledges when the tide was low. Remarks. Black Ducks have bred on Maine islands for a long time. The earliest published reports are by Dutcher (1902: 45) and Norton (in Dutcher, 1904: 149, 150, 156). Recently Gross (1945c) has re- ported finding eggs, young, or other evidence of breeding on 11 different islands. These range from Casco Bay into Hancock County, including offshore No Mans Land in the Matinicus group. The following data are from the journals of three hunters whose shooting was done mainly at Scarborough: Loring shot 339 birds from 1842 to 1854, or an average of 26 per year; in ten different years from 1866 to 1899, Rogers shot 85 birds, never getting over 16 in one season until 1899 when he bagged 26, and for every year from 1900 to 1912, averaging over 78 per season, he shot a total of 1,018 birds, the yearly bag consistently high until 1911 and 1912 when it fell to 40 and 45 birds; and Pillsbury shot 340 birds in 19 different years between 1892 and 1912, from one to nine in the years prior to 1903, with 43 in that year, and over 30 per year thereafter, except for a low of nine birds in PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 79 1906. Although there are a number of variable factors in these records, an increase in numbers of the Black Duck, beginning about 1900, is evident. Norton (1915b: 501) briefly mentioned the increase in this species. In 1916, spring shooting was abolished, and five years later, Norton (1921: 357) wrote that the species had "increased greatly" and bred throughout the state in large numbers. Still later (1928b: 455), he reported that they were nesting in places where seldom seen a decade earlier. This increase finally ceased some time in the late 1920's or early 1930's, when a very marked decline began. By 1938, the popula- tion showed noticeable recovery. Numbers were fairly stable from 1941 to 1944 (although somewhat higher in 1942), with a decrease beginning in 1945 and continuing in 1946, and, although breeding pairs increased in 1947, floods destroyed a great many nests (Mendall). The Black Duck is the most abundant duck in Maine. Favorite feeding places, like Merrymeeting Bay, provide an abun- dance of such foods as various sedges, wild rice, bur-reed (Sparganium spp.), broad-leaved pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), and smartweed (Polygonum spp.). According to Knight (1908b: 84), the Black Duck feeds "on a great variety of vegetable matter, tender roots and buds of aquatic plants, grass roots in the meadows, and insects, being also decidedly partial to frogs, tadpoles and even small minnows. I have known individuals to . . . gorge themselves with huckleberries in late August." He also mentioned (ibid. 85) that two birds, killed in winter near Bucksport, Hancock County, had eaten the fruit of "Lepargyraea Canadensis Nutt., a northern shrub not known from this particular region." Norton (1909f : 439) wrote that birds "taken on the outer islands off the coast in winter have been found to be chiefly fed upon Littorina palliata [a mollusk]. A specimen taken on the Presumpscot River, in Windham, late in November, was gorged with a fresh water snail (Campeloma decisa). Two specimens taken on tide water at the mouth of the same river, in the fall, had their gullets filled with seed of eel grass [Zoster a marina) and a few isopods (Idotea marina)." Observations on feeding habits, made the third week in March, 1938, at Big Spoon Island in eastern Knox County waters, were recorded by Norton in his notes as follows: "A flock of about 15 birds rested on the upland, or among the soggy depressions lately uncovered of snow and drained by the porous soil. Here numerous elliptical holes, wider than high, were burrowed through the tangle of short grass to the underlying soil, showing where they had been probing for tender shoots and other edible substances." At Back Cove, Portland, an incomplete record of winters when 80 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology sustenance of these birds was largely dependent on human aid, is as follows: 1911-12, 1917-18, 1919-20, 1922-23, 1924-25, 1929-30, and 1947-48. The second winter mentioned was by far the most severe; at least several hundred birds would have died had they not been fed. There is now a "Black Duck Fund," donated by interested persons, to buy food for these birds. Most young birds in early fall weigh 1^ to 2Y% pounds, averaging somewhat over two pounds. Larger birds, shot later, occasionally weigh up to 434 pounds. About seven ducks yield a pound of feathers, and about 25 pounds generally are used for a feather mattress. Gadwall Anas strepera Linnaeus Transient, one record for spring and occasional in fall. Has occurred in Cumberland, Sagadahoc, Washington, Piscataquis, and Aroostook Counties. Spring. Two were shot on April 29, 1879, at Scarborough (Smith, 1882-83: 125). Fall. Records are from September 12 to November 8. The two earliest are for one seen on September 12, 1933, at a small pond in Township 3, Range 11, west of Mt. Katahdin (Palmer and Taber, 1946: 303), and one shot on September 14 of unstated year at Merry- meeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 11). Other records are from September 24 to October 29, with these two later ones: a male shot on November 7, 1904, at Windham, Cumberland County (Norton, 1916: 380); and a young male shot on November 8, 1927, at Falmouth, in the same county (Rich). Flight year. A small flight occurred in late October and early No- vember, 1904, as reported by Norton (ibid.). Ecology. This is a dabbling duck, found in quiet waters, such as river mouths and estuaries. It is found where there is more cover than is characteristic of the Baldpate, and less than is ideal for the Black Duck. Associates include the Black Duck, Pintail, and Blue-winged Teal. Remarks. Records indicate a slight increase of this species, and I am inclined to believe that this is due to more birds rather than to more accurate reporting. The two inland records include the bird seen near Mt. Katahdin, cited above, and about a dozen birds, in singles and pairs, seen on September 27, 1934, on the Aroostook River, by Dr. E. G. Rowland. Boardman first (1862: 129) called this bird rare about Calais, and PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 81 later (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 1 : 508) stated that it was "not uncommon in the fall in the vicinity." Still later (Boardman, 1903: 312), he wrote: "Very rare; accidental." Possibly the second report of "not uncommon" was occasioned by a small flight one fall. DeKay's statement (1844: 343) that this species bred in Maine was perhaps a misinterpretation of Audubon's mention (1838: 353) of occurrence from Eastport, Maine, to Texas. Brewster (1883c: 162) took exception to the statement in Stearns and Coues (1883: 308) that this bird "very probably breeds in the swamps of Maine." American Pintail Anas acuta tzitzihoa Vieillot Transient, occasional to numerous in spring and fall, mainly in coastal counties; winter resident, common to numerous in Back Cove, Portland, and perhaps occasional elsewhere on the coast; rare in summer, not known to breed. Spring. Most transients are seen in late March and the first half of April. The earliest record believed to refer to transients is for a male and female shot by Spinney on March 5 or 6, 1901, at Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County. Latest dates are May 7 of unstated year, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 12), and May 9, 1945, at Calais (Mendall). Fall. Migration lasts from late August to late November, with most birds seen during the last three weeks of September. "I have often found one or two Pintails among the early flocks of Blue-winged Teal coming into Maine in late August" (Mendall). Four of these ducks were seen on salt water on August 29, 1941, at Petit Manan Point, Washington County (Weston). A late date for well inland is Brewster's (1924: 124) record of a bird shot on October 20, 1884, at the mouth of the Cambridge River in Upton, Oxford County. Flight years. In 1939, unusual numbers were present in September and October in Waldo, Sagadahoc, and Cumberland Counties (various observers); in the fall of 1944> the flight was noticeably larger than usual in northern, eastern, and central Maine (Mendall). Summer. Records are: one seen on June 28, 1935, one or two in June, 1936, and one on August 16, 1938, at Jackman, Somerset County (A. R. Phillips); and a female seen on July 26, 1945, near Calais (J. M. Dudley). Mendall has found no evidence of breeding. The species was first found breeding in New Brunswick in 1938. Winter. The first wintering record was for a drake seen February 15, 1912, between Falmouth and Portland, in Casco Bay (Norton, 1912a). Later, Norton (1933c) reported that, beginning in the winter 82 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology of 1927-28, this species was a "regular winter resident" at Back Cove, Portland. Such has been the situation to the present time, with usually 8 to 30 birds remaining there. In the winter of 1930-31, unusual numbers remained, and on November 15, Norton saw 85 birds; on December 1, 28 birds; on January 3, "not less than 40"; and on January 18, "about 50." I am of the opinion that a few birds now winter occasionally east of Casco Bay, though the only substantiating evidence is a bird shot January 4, 1939, on Great Cranberry Island, Hancock County, reported by Tyson and Bond (1941: 54). Ecology. Inland, this gregarious species is found on fairly large ex- panses of water or marsh, and not in small areas surrounded by trees, which are part of the Black Duck's habitat. It occurs often on brackish and less often (except in winter) on salt water. It feeds mostly on submerged vegetable material, by 'up-ending' in shallow water, and its relatively long neck makes it readily adapted to this type of feeding. Associates include the Black Duck, Mallard, teal, Gadwall, and, especially, the Baldpate. Remarks. Gunners' records and other data indicate that the Pintail was regularly uncommon, with a fairly stable population from at least as far back as the 1860's down to the 1930's. A definite increase began some time in the latter decade, with more transients being seen. The species is present in greater numbers, and is more widely distributed, in fall than in spring. Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80) reported that among birds seen during his years at Scarborough were "grey Duck" and "Smethes." Either might have the Pintail, but unquestionable is mention of the species by Williamson (1832: 141, 142). Boardman (1862: 129) gave the status of this duck, in the Calais region and mouth of the Bay of Fundy, as "Winter. Rare." Later, Boardman (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 1 : 514) reported only fall occurrence, so the earlier report, having been reconsidered, furnishes no certain evidence of wintering at that time in the area. Phillips (1923: 309) discounted several published reports that this duck bred in eastern Canada; he included the report of M. Chamberlain (1882: 58), which, to some authors, had implied breeding, but was actually an early fall (September) record, for New Brunswick. In the summer of 1938, H. S. Peters (1939) found a nest with ten eggs on June 6, and other evidence of breeding in Westmorland County in this same Province. By 1940, there was a colony of about 30 pairs, and indications that another might be starting in central New Brunswick (H. S. Peters, 1941a: 4). There is an early spring date for the Grand Manan archipelago, New Brunswick. This is for a female taken on March 2, 1918 (Pettingill, 1939a: 324). palmer: maine birds 83 European Teal Anas crecca Linnaeus Three records of adult male specimens. Norton (1943a) acquired a mounted bird without data, probably taken in the late 1870's or early ISSO's, and of "local origin" [Cumberland County]. One was taken on April 6, 1903, "in Casco Bay" (Brock, 1907); another was taken a day or two prior to March 26, 1910, at Scarborough (Norton, 1911a). All are now in the Portland Society of Natural History. Green-winged Teal Anas carolinensis Gmelin Transient, occasional to common in spring and common to numerous in fall, with the larger numbers in coastal counties both seasons; occa- sional summer resident, undoubtedly breeding in Hancock, Penobscot, and Washington Counties; two early winter records. Spring. Transients generally are noted from about March 20 to April 29, largest numbers being seen the first ten days in April. Early records are for a female shot on March 14, 1910, at Scarborough (Pillsbury), and two the following day at Cape Elizabeth (F. Conant). This teal arrives April 17 to 29 at Presque Isle (Chamberlain), perhaps depending on how early there is much ice-free water. Latest records are for seven birds seen on April 29, 1943, at Merrymeeting Bay (Gross), and 15 on April 29, 1944, at Bangor (Weston). Fall. As with many other ducks, there is a local movement in August when birds appear in localities where they do not nest. For example, several were seen on August 15, 1938, at Great Pond on Petit Manan Point, Washington County (R. McClanahan), and Weston has seen them there a number of times the last week of the month. A few transients are noted by September 4, but most are seen from September 20 through October, with declining numbers to No- vember 15. Late occurrences are: one shot on November 22, 1913, at Cape Elizabeth (Norton) ; about 50, with Black Ducks and American Goldeneyes, on November 22, 1946, on the St. Croix River at Baring, Washington County (Mendall); and one seen on November 29, 1941, in Penobscot County (Weston). Flight years. In 1874, this bird was "unusually abundant" in fall near Portland (Mac, 1874); 190S, "most ever seen" in fall, probably at Scarborough (Rogers), and 31 recorded shot in one day by members of the Great Pond Club at Cape Elizabeth; 1924, a "heavy flight" on 84 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology November 5, at Falmouth, Cumberland County (B. E. Smith); and in 1941, the flights of both species of teal were "the heaviest in this section [Washington County] I have ever recorded" (Mendall). Breeding. The nest, a depression in the ground, contains some vegetable material and is lined with down from the duck. Although Samuels (1867: 494) thought that this teal probably bred in his time in northern New England (as it did even then in New Brunswick), no Maine record was established until July 25, 1940, when a female with a brood of "five or six young about five weeks old" was found on Dead Stream in Township 33, Hancock County, and reported by Mendall and Gashwiler (1941:401). "Breeding records have since been obtained in Penobscot and Washington Counties" (Mendall). On June 18, 1947, a nest containing nine eggs was found in the Moose- horn Refuge at Baring, Washington County (Mendall). The incu- bation period, variably reported outside of Maine, is probably 21 or 22 days, with fledging requiring six weeks or less. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. Early winter records are for several seen on December 26, 1940, on Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941 : 54), and a drake seen on December 30, 1941, at Blue Hill, Hancock County (Weston). Ecology. Data from outside Maine indicate that nesting is in dry localities, sometimes under brush for concealment, and usually near water but occasionally a considerable distance away. As a transient, this teal occurs on fresh, brackish, and salt water, as well as in salt marshes. In summer, it is a fresh water bird. It feeds mainly on emergent and floating vegetable matter, and often is noisy and active when feeding on moonlit nights. Most common migrant associates in Maine are the Black Duck and Blue-winged Teal. Remarks. According to M. Chamberlain (1882:58), the Green- winged Teal was a common summer resident in New Brunswick. Forbush (1912:92-93) cited reports which showed that, about 50 years earlier, the bird was plentiful in Massachusetts. Maine shooting data, beginning about 1870, indicate that seldom was it even locally common for a day in any season. The species continued to decrease at least up to 1916 when spring shooting was abolished, and any re- covery in population was not apparent until the early 1930's. In the last six or seven years, the increase in transients has been marked and, undoubtedly, can be correlated with an increasing breeding population in the Maritime Provinces, Newfoundland, and adjacent areas. At the present rate of expansion of this bird's summer range westward, we may have breeding records for one or two additional Maine counties in a few more years. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 85 At present the relative status of the Green-winged and Blue-winged Teal in migrations is as follows. The former greatly outnumbers the latter in spring. In fall, the Blue-wing comes early and occurs in numbers in favored localities. The Green-wing arrives later, is of more widespread occurrence, and usually does not concentrate in such numbers as does the Blue-wing. Taking the season as a whole, it is a question as to which species is present in larger numbers in fall. Nominal mention of "green wing'd" Teal by Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80) is the earliest Maine record of this species. An early spring date for the Grand Manan archipelago is for a male taken on March 1, 1916 (Pettingill, 1939a: 324). Blue-winged Teal Anas discors Linnaeus Transient, fairly common in spring and numerous in fall, mainly in coastal counties; summer resident, uncommon but regular in eastern and northern counties (Washington, Penobscot, Aroostook, Somerset, Waldo, and probably Hancock) and occasional elsewhere (records for Oxford and Cumberland). Spring. In coastal counties, most transients are seen from April 13 to May 4. Very early dates are for a duck shot on March 8, 1902, at Georgetown, Sagadahoc County (Spinney, 1902b: 43), and one seen on March 13, 1904, at Cape Elizabeth (Rogers). Arrival dates for Presque Isle range from April 28 to May 18 (Chamberlain). Oc- casionally small flocks linger at Merrymeeting Bay until mid-May. Fall. There are local movements, beginning in early August, when these teal gather in flocks at places where food is plentiful. The general southward movement, not much in evidence until after August 20, reaches a peak between September 4 and 17, and most birds depart by October 7. There are several records for as late as November 7 in southwestern counties, and later ones are: three seen on November 8, 1941, on Corinna Stream, Penobscot County (Mendall); and, one, believed to have been of this species, seen on November 19, 1939, on Isle au Haut, one killed on November 26, 1917, on Monhegan and sent to a Portland taxidermist, and a specimen taken on December 1 of unstated year in Cumberland County (Norton). Flight years. In 1904, gunners found this teal more numerous in early September than for a decade, in Cumberland County (Norton), and large numbers were reported at Merrymeeting Bay (Noble, 1905a: 10-11); 1927, unusual numbers were present in fall at Merrymeeting Bay (Spinney) ; and in 1941, there was a heavy fall flight in Washington County (Mendall). 86 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Breeding. The nest, a depression in the ground, contains a rather substantial layer of grass, leaves, or other plant material, and is lined with down from the duck. The following specific records for Maine, though few, indicate the span of the nesting season. A duck with nine young was seen the last week in May, 1936, on an inlet of Mayfield Pond in Mayfield Township, Somerset County (G. R. Meyer); on May 29, 1945, a nest containing 12 eggs (one taken had a 12-day embryo) was found on Stratton Island, Scarborough (Gross); on June 1, 1945, a nest with six eggs was found at Calais, and five more eggs were added later (Mendall); on June 9, 1937, a nest with 12 eggs was found at Calais (G. Swanson); and from June 16 to 19, 1934, a duck with six young was observed at Kezar Pond, Fryeburg, Oxford County (H. Maynard). Outside of Maine, Kortright (1942: 208) has reported that incubation requires 21 to 23 days and that the young are fledged in six weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. This gregarious and unwary bird usually is found on fresh or brackish water in migration, but also occurs on sheltered areas of salt water. During the breeding season, it generally nests in dry localities, the nest being well concealed, near fresh water. It feeds mainly on surface and emergent vegetation. On August 21, 1940, near Portland, Norton watched a flock of 13 birds feeding "very busily on the surface, on masses of algae, and not tipping up at all." Most common associates are the Black Duck and Green-winged Teal. Remarks. The Blue-wing was reported as an abundant bird in fall, in the 1870's, by Brewster (1924: 119) and others, but the situation was not of long duration as Maine shooting data show. During the month of August, this bird was a choice target for the many men and boys who engaged in hunting shorebirds for the market. In the 1880's, a brace of teal, sent to Boston, brought $1.25, and data show reports like the two gunners on Cape Elizabeth who bagged a "bushel basket heaping full" of teal out of one day's flight (G. E. Cushman), and the Freeport boy who killed 24 birds with two shots and 29 with five (W. C. Kendall). As a result of such heavy shooting, numbers in fall were sadly reduced by 1885. Whereas the records from 1885 to 1902 or later indicate a few more Blue-wings than Green-wings killed, it seems that both were about equally scarce in fall in that period. As to spring records, so rare was the Blue-wing, that Smith (1882- 83: 125) wrote: "I know of but a single instance of the occurrence of this species in spring. The late Caleb G. Loring, Jr. shot one at Scarboro, Me., April 28, 1859." In the period from 1895 to 1904, only two are known to have been shot at the Great Pond Club on Cape Elizabeth. It is probable that, in Smith's time, spring transients followed a PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 87 different route — perhaps crossing the Gulf of Maine — for there is evi- dence that some birds reached the Calais and Bay of Fundy region during this period. In his 1862 list for this area, Boardman (1862: 129) mentioned spring and fall occurrence, and the following year, he (Boardman, 1907: 96) shot an adult and three "young" on August 13. Samuels (1867:495-496) stated that Boardman had found this bird and young at Milltown, Maine, and two decades later, Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884, 1 : 533) cited Boardman as authority for this species breeding in the vicinity of Calais, though it was not common. In his later list, Boardman (1903: 312) gave its status as: "Common; breeds." Beginning in the decade after 1900, there appears to have been a slight increase, especially in fall, but these were mostly transients, until, I would guess, at least 1925. Aldous and Mendall (1940: 22) wrote: "As a resident bird in Maine, the blue-winged teal has long been found largely in the eastern part of the State, but in recent years it has been observed breeding in scattered areas throughout northern and eastern Maine." At present, in early fall before gunning begins, one can expect to see 1,500 to 2,000 of these birds at Merrymeeting Bay. For the relative status of this species and the Green-wing during migrations, see Remarks under the latter. Mention of "blew wing'd" teal by Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80) is the first Maine record of this bird. Widgeon; European Widgeon Mareca penelope (Linnaeus) Transient, one record for spring and occasional in fall. All specimen records are for Cumberland, Sagadahoc, and Washington Counties, and one report for Lincoln County. Spring. An adult male was shot on April 19, 1926, at Falmouth, Cumberland County. It was reported erroneously as "seen" on April 20 of that year by Norton (1933d). Fall. All specimen records, from September 20 to "a few days" after December 7, are as follows, chronologically by year: a female, September 20, 1911, at Swans Island, Bowdoinham, Sagadahoc County, and another female, November 13, 1912, at Scarborough (Norton, 1913: 574); a young male, October 29, 1917, at Scarborough (Norton, 1933d); a female, late October, 1923, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 11); a male molting into adult plumage, December 7, 1923, at Falmouth, a "very similar specimen" taken "a few days later" at Cape Elizabeth, and a male and female, November 14, 1930, at 88 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Scarborough (Norton, 1933d); and a young male shot on October 8, 1948, at Alexander, Washington County, by J. Dudley (Mendall). Ecology. This bird is found in a habitat similar to that of the Baldpate, with which it often associates. Remarks. Although Maine records show no definite trend, this species probably is increasing gradually. No doubt records are missed by gunners who do not recognize this duck. That "a flock of 21 birds alighted in a pond near the house," as re- ported by A. L. Carter of Jefferson, Lincoln County, in a letter dated November 26, 1924 (Hasbrouck, 1944a: 98), seems questionable to me. A male was shot on October 12, 1890, just across the border in Errol, New Hampshire (Brewster, 1924: 113-114), and another on November 1, 1927, at Nantucket Island in the Grand Manan archi- pelago, New Brunswick (Pettingill, 1939a: 324). Baldpate; American Widgeon Mareca americana (Gmelin) Transient, uncommon, seen more often in fall than in spring, in coastal counties, and rare in inland parts of Penobscot County and in Oxford. Spring. Although most transients are seen from March 23 to April 12, there are these earlier records: N. C. Brown (1884) examined, on February 20, 1884, an adult male, dead "several days," which had been sent to Portland from Freeport, Cumberland County, and, be- cause the season had been mild, felt that the bird "should be regarded as an early migrant rather than as a winter resident."; a male seen on March 12, 1942, in Back Cove, Portland (Norton); and one shot March 13, 1904, at Scarborough (Rogers). Latest occurrences are: April 15, 1916, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 11); and May 4, 1947, at Back Cove (Haven in Gross, 1947f : 31). Fall. Most birds are noted from September 27 to November 7, with occasional occurrences in December in Cumberland County. Early records are all for single birds shot at the Great Pond Club at Cape Elizabeth, on September 2, 1909, September 6, 1904, and September 7, 1899. The latest date is for a young male shot on December 7, 1923, in Falmouth, Cumberland County (Norton). Flight years. The shooting journal of Rogers listed 20 "widgeon" killed in the fall of 1902 in Scarborough. For the fall of 1904, Noble (1905a: 12-13) reported flocks of 25 or 30 together at Merrymeeting Bay, six birds were shot by Rogers at Scarborough, and 21 birds were bagged by members of the Great Pond Club at Cape Elizabeth. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 89 Ecology. This species, generally found on more open water than is the Black Duck, feeds where there is little emergent vegetation, but much floating and submerged food — particularly broad-leaved pond- weed (Potamogeton spp.). Although this implies a fresh or brackish water habitat, the Baldpate also occurs on fairly sheltered salt water bays. When they occur in any numbers, these birds are generally in flocks rather than singles or pairs. Associates include Pintails, Wid- geon, and teal. In other parts of its range, this species is noted as a parasite on several diving ducks, seizing the plant material which the latter bring to the surface in their bills. Remarks. For the 13 years, 1842 to 1854, Loring shot 82 "widgeon" at Scarborough; year-by-year data are lacking. Records, often over- lapping, of Smith, Rogers, Pillsbury, and the Great Pond Club, all for Cumberland County, show a very uniform yearly kill from 1868 to 1910. Shooting data for more recent years are lacking. Considering the above, however, plus recent sight and scattered specimen records, it appears that there has been no marked population change in the past hundred years. Inland records include a few occurrences in parts of Penobscot County, and, farther inland for Oxford County, a report of being "very rare" (Nash in Knight, 1897d: 29; 1908b: 86), and the few Umbagog records of Brewster (1924: 114-116). The crop and gizzard of a female, shot September 28, 1880, at Spednic Lake, Vanceboro, Washington County, were "full of green leaves" (Hardy). Two males weighed 20 and 22^ ounces (Norton). Mention of "Widgeons'" by Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80) is not a certain first record of this bird in Maine. More satisfactory is inclusion in the list of Holmes (1861a: 121). Shoveller Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus) Transient, rare in spring and fall, recorded for Oxford, Cumberland, Sagadahoc, Hancock, and Washington Counties. Spring. Most records are for the second half of April. The earliest one is for a drake shot on April 7, 1879, on Stratton Island off Scarborough (Smith, 1882-83: 125), and the latest for a drake seen on May 2, 1933, at Back Cove, Portland (Rich). Fall. Most records for this season are scattered rather evenly through September and October. The earliest is for a bird shot on August 24, 1895, at Scarborough (Pillsbury), and latest ones are for 90 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology two ducks shot on November 3, 1928, at Merrymeeting Bay, one five days later at Falmouth, Cumberland County, and a duck received on November 10, 1924, in fresh condition from Merrymeeting Bay, by a Portland taxidermist (Norton). Flight years. Small flights have occurred in: 1881, in spring (N. C. Brown, 1881; Smith, 1882-83: 125); 1923, in fall (Rich; Spinney); and 1928, in fall (Norton; Spinney). Ecology. Generally this bird is found in brackish waters near the coast, but also has occurred on fresh and on sheltered salt water areas. It is a surface feeder, roiling muddy shallow water and straining this mixture through the 'sieves' in its bill. Data from outside Maine show that the food thus secured is partly animal matter (including snails and insects) and partly vegetable (including seeds of sedges, pond- weeds, and grasses). The Shoveller is not markedly gregarious with its own kind or other species, but has been seen in Maine with Blue- winged Teal and Black Ducks. Remarks. This duck probably does not occur in Maine every year. Records, in recent decades, indicate that it occurs more often in fall than in spring. It was being seen with increasing frequency in the 1920's, and although I believe such an increase has continued to the present, I do not have adequate data to prove this point. I find no evidence that it ever was numerous in Maine. Boardman was consistent in considering the species rare at Calais, but Brewer, probably in error, stated {in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 1 : 528) that it occurred "in small numbers, in spring and fall" in that vicinity. The farthest inland record is that of Brewster (1924: 123), who stated that the bird was "exceedingly rare" in autumn at Lake Umbagog. Since scaups sometimes were called "shuffler," Josselyn's mention (1674; 1865b: 80) of "Shoulers or Shoflers" cannot be called a definite record of the present species. More certain is inclusion in the list of Holmes (1861a: 121). On January 5, 1935, a male was taken on Nantucket Island in the Grand Manan archipelago (Pettingill, 1939a: 325). Wood Duck Aix sponsa (Linnaeus) Summer resident, uncommon to fairly common throughout the mainland and perhaps occurring rarely on larger inshore islands; transient, common in spring and fall on fresh and brackish waters, and rare on sheltered salt water areas. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 91 Spring. Most transients are seen from April 2 to 23, with highest numbers occurring the second week in the month. The earliest record is for three seen by Norton on March 22, 1894, at Westbrook, Cumber- land County, and there are numerous late March records even eastward into Penobscot County. Earliest arrival date at Presque Isle is April 1 1 (Chamberlain). Late migrants are noted until about May 14. Fall. Most birds depart between September 15 and October 20, with a few sometimes lingering until November 1. Late dates are for a "good number" seen on November 7, 1936, at Kezar Pond, Fryeburg, Oxford County (H. Maynard), and 20 seen on November 8, 1940, on Corinna Stream in Penobscot County, and five seen on November 21, 1938, at Princeton, Washington County (Mendall). Flight years. I find no records of occurrence in unusually large numbers. It was much scarcer than usual in the spring of 1945, and scarcer still in 194G, in northern and eastern Maine (Mendall). Breeding. The nest tree may be standing in water, or may be several hundred yards from it. Usually the nest is in a hollow limb or trunk, the entrance being 5 to 50 feet above ground. The cavity usually contains some rotted wood, and is lined by the duck with down as laying progresses. Eight to 12 eggs are laid at a rate of one per day; much larger clutches probably are the eggs of two ducks laying in the same nest. Infertile eggs are common. In Maine, laying probably begins the first week in May, and occasionally in April since Brewster (1924: 127) found newly hatched young at Lake Umbagog on June 1, 1880. He also (ibid. 126-127) recorded finding ten fresh eggs there on May 21, 1880, and seven on May 23, 1881. Incubation, by the duck, is variably reported outside of Maine as lasting 28 to 32 days. J. C. Phillips (1925: 61) pointed out that incubation is longer than in other surface-feeding ducks, requiring 30 to 32 days; he agreed with Heinroth, who gave 26 days for the Mallard, that the Wood Duck takes at least five days longer. Occasionally the drake is in attendance at the nest tree. For the first few days of their lives, the ducklings have very sharp claws. After a day or two in the nest, they leave with or without a signal from the duck, their claws enabling them to climb up the wall of the nest cavity to the opening, from which they jump to the ground or water. If the nest is back from shore, the duck leads the young to water, where, occasionally at least, both parents accompany the brood. The young fly when between eight and nine weeks of age. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. The preferred habitat of this bird is streams, ponds, and coves about lakes, bordered or shaded by deciduous or mixed wood- lands. This duck is a surface feeder and dives very infrequently. 92 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Sometimes, when not feeding, a flock may bask in the sun, with eyes closed and bills tucked under scapulars, but usually they are found in shaded spots. At Merrymeeting Bay, most Wood Ducks are seen about inlets or in sheltered coves, rather than in the wild rice beds out in open water. This preference for shade correlates with their crepuscular feeding habits and unusually large eyes. Audubon (1835), Brewster (1924), and J. C. Phillips (1925) have commented on the poor vision of this bird in daylight, and on its excellent sense of hearing. These ducks are agile on land. I have flushed them from under oaks, where they were walking about, eating acorns, on islands in the Androscoggin River below Brunswick. I have also seen them perching on limbs, horizontal or at various angles, as well as on tops of small stubs. One early July afternoon, at Pushaw Stream in West Old Town, Penobscot County, I flushed 23 of these birds from a fairly sizable and densely-foliaged maple. Singly or in flocks, this species does not associate closely with other waterfowl. Even in the cases of rare salt water occurrence during migration, the Wood Ducks seen or shot were not in company with other ducks. Remarks. As early as 1889 a marked decrease in the population of this bird in Maine was noted, being attributed to over-shooting and, to a lesser degree, to netting (Norton). Numbers did not decline greatly at Umbagog until the turn of the century, and, after another decade of gunning, Brewster (1924: 125) used the expression, "ap- proaching local extinction," to describe conditions there. The situation grew so acute that, by 1911, when Maine enacted a four-year period of protection, persons regularly afield were fortunate if they saw one or two birds a year. The Wood Duck was placed on the list of totally protected species by the Federal Government in 1918. This closed time was continued until recently, when one Wood Duck per day has been allowed as the legal quota. Considering the great increase during the years of protection, the fact is obvious that over-shooting, rather than changes in forest conditions or lack of nest sites, was the primary cause of the near extirpation of this bird from Maine. The nesting situation of these birds may act somewhat as a limiting factor in their numbers. The hollows used may be natural ones, or old cavities made by Pileated Woodpeckers. I have been told of Wood Ducks coming down chimneys, and of one once coming into an old barn and laying eggs on the hay. During lumbering operations in former years, when many lakes and ponds were dammed, large numbers of trees were killed by flooding and, when decaying, provided numerous nest sites. Most of these have now passed the useful stage, so that a shortage of cavities exists. Perhaps the increasing Pileated Wood- PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 93 pecker population in southern counties will help the situation there. In these counties, however, Gray Squirrels undoubtedly compete for some of the small cavities, whereas in the northern part of the state, the Hooded Merganser is a competitor, and throughout the state the Raccoon is an occasional one for the larger holes. In regard to the shortage of nesting sites, Aldous and Mendall (1940: 25) wrote: "As lack of nesting sites is often a serious hindrance to wood ducks, a special effort should be made by farmers and timber- land operators to leave standing a few hollow trees or trees with hollow limbs along the shores of wooded lakes and streams. Since these ducks sometimes nest in bird boxes, such artificial houses could be put up in areas where there is a deficiency of nesting sites." Many Wood Ducks are caught in spring in muskrat traps. Some of those caught are not injured too badly to be released again. The number lost from this cause certainly is far less than the number formerly shot in fall and thrown away during the years of complete protection. Norton (1909f : 439) reported bulbs of arrowhead (Sagittaria sp.) as food of this duck in Maine. His notes also record a drake, shot October 5, 1939, at Merrymeeting Bay, as having its gizzard a quarter full of seeds of wild rice (Zizania aquatica). Examples of local concentrations of these birds are: about 125, in small flocks at Great Pond, Cape Elizabeth, on September 16, 1930 (Norton); and 180 (and all present not counted) at one time, in the fall of 1936, at Kezar Pond, Fryeburg, Oxford County (H. Maynard). During fall banding operations, weights of an unstated number of Wood Ducks were recorded, the range being 16 to 29 ounces (Gashwiler and Marsh, 1940: 10). "Bands from three immature Wood Ducks banded on the Penobscot River near Howland [Penobscot County], Maine, between September 26 and September 28, 1939, were secured respectively at Olamon Stream, Penobscot County, Maine, on October 7, 1939; at St. Mathews, South Carolina, on February 12, 1940; and at Centenary, South Carolina, on December 25, 1939" (ibid. 11). On April 7, 1882, a duck and drake were shot on offshore Matinicus Island, Knox County, the occurrence being so unusual that "none of the gunners had any name" for the birds (Hardy). Redhead Aythya americana (Eyton) Rare/a// transient, records being for Oxford, Cumberland, Sagadahoc Kennebec, Knox, Penobscot, and Washington Counties; one certain spring record for Cumberland. No records for over a decade. 94 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Spring. A pair of these birds was shot on March 27, 1905, at Scarborough (Norton, 1916: 380). Maynard and Brewster (1871 : 384) reported rare spring occurrence in Oxford County. Fall. Most birds have been seen between September 13 and October 31. An early record is for a male shot on August 19, 1876, at Cape Elizabeth (N. C. Brown). Late records are for a female shot on November 3, 1916, at Scarborough, and five birds shot on November 13, 1912, at Cape Elizabeth (Norton). Flight year. Unusual numbers were present in late October and November, 1904, at Merrymeeting Bay (Swain, 1904b: 16; Noble, 1905a: 12) and in the vicinity of Portland (G. Cushman). Ecology. This is a gregarious species, usually occurring in pairs or flocks, on fresh or brackish water. Food, both vegetable and animal matter, is secured by diving in three to ten feet of water. A favorite food is the leaves, fruits, and submerged parts of wild celery (Val- lisneria spiralis). Although I have no Maine data on migrant associ- ates, the Redhead probably accompanies Lesser Scaup Ducks, as is often the case elsewhere. Remarks. Samuels (1867: 507) wrote: "I found several specimens of both sexes in the Umbagog Lakes in June; and I think it not im- possible, that, if it does not breed there, it will be found to breed in some of the lake regions of northern New England." Boardman (1871c) reported that he had found a pair of these ducks breeding "near Calais," and that this was the first time he had found the species in summer. Brewer (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 2: 37-38) stated: "Mr. Boardman informs me that in the summer of 1871 he found a pair of Red-heads which were evidently breeding in the vicinity of Calais, Me. . . Its nest and eggs were afterward, in the summer of 1874, actually found by Mr. William Bryant about thirty miles north of Calais. The presence of this bird about Calais had been previously noted by Mr. Boardman during each summer, and he had not doubted that a few pair remain about there for the purpose of rearing their young." Boardman (1903: 312) later listed this bird as: "Rare; breeds." The Redhead population never has been large in Maine, as the state lies east of its migration route. At Scarborough, Loring shot 14 birds in the years 1842 to 1854. Two dozen were killed from 1892 to 1908 by members of the Great Pond Club on Cape Elizabeth. There often have been several years when few or no individuals were noted, but that there have been no records recently for more than a decade indicates a more than ordinary period of low numbers or absence. Even in times of scarcity, however, one should be on the lookout for breeding Redheads in the same places where the Ring-neck nests. An PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 95 alleged 1931 breeding record for the present species is discussed under the Ring-necked Duck. The locality for the one definite spring record, cited above, was given erroneously as Portland (in Brownson, 1906d: 66). On July 7, 1944, a female and eight downy young, less than a week old, were found near Maugerville, New Brunswick (Mendall, 1945a). Perhaps more unexpected is the record of a female shot on January 4, 1906, near Grand Manan, in the same province (Pettingill, 1939a: 325). Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris (Donovan) Summer resident, fairly common at suitable localities in Oxford, Franklin, Somerset, Piscataquis, Penobscot, Aroostook, Waldo, and Hancock Counties, and very common in Washington; transient, common in spring and fairly numerous in fall throughout; one early winter record. Spring. Migration occurs chiefly in April. Early dates are: two seen on March 19, 1947, at Pembroke, Washington County (J. M. Dudley); three seen on March 20, 1942, at Frankfort, Waldo County (Weston); and 17 seen on March 29, 1945, at Milford and Greenbush, Penobscot County (Mendall). Chamberlain's earliest arrival date at Presque Isle is April 12. Late dates are for a drake shot on May 1, 1879, at Scarborough (N. C. Brown, 1882f : 2), and several seen each day on June 12, 13, and 16, 1947, in Lincoln County (Cruickshank). Fall. Migration is preceded by local movements in which these ducks concentrate at favored feeding places. On September 17, 1886, a young male was shot on the Cambridge River, Oxford County (Brewster, 1924: 140), another was taken on September 19, 1919, at Merrymeeting Bay (W T alch, 1926: 13), and on September 24, 25, and 26, 1939, J. A. Hagar saw about 200 there. The main southward movement occurs throughout October and early November. Late inland records, all for Penobscot County, are for about 40 birds seen on November 1, 1941, at Eddington (Weston), between 30 and 40 seen on March 6, 1937, at Eddington Pond (Eckstorm), and 50 seen on November 8, 1940, on Corinna Stream (Mendall). Late coastal records are for two birds shot on November 18, 1913, at the Great Pond Club on Cape Elizabeth (Norton), and a very late occurrence on November 22, 1938, at Edmunds, Washington County (Mendall). Flight year. An unusual number was taken in the spring of 1882 in Cumberland County (N.C.Brown, 1882e: 190; Smith, 1882-83:184). 96 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Breeding and summer. In Maine, according to Aldous and Mendall (1940: 32-33), this duck "shows a tendency to postpone nesting until late in May or even early in June. . . The nests are constructed among reeds or bushes within a few feet of open water. Sometimes, in fact, they are completely surrounded by water, and it is necessary for the birds to build up the base in order to keep the nest dry. Small bushy islands are favorite nesting sites." [Clutch size, incubation period, and many new data are given in a paper by Mendall, now (1948) being written.] That some birds nest earlier than is indicated above is shown by the few data at hand : nine eggs, advanced in incubation, on June 10, 1941, at Eddington (Eckstorm); three eggs of a clutch pipped on June 18, at Calais, and a brood about four days old on June 23, 1945, at Crawford, Washington County (J. M. Dudley); numerous downy young in June, 1947, at Snake Pond, South Brooks ville, Hancock County (K. Tousey); and a female with brood of young on August 6, 1936, at Grassy Pond in Township 4, Range 13, Piscataquis County (Swanson, 1937). Fledging probably requires two months. One brood is raised yearly. A pair of Ring-necks was seen July 4 to 9, 1946, at Pemaquid Sanctuary, Bristol, Lincoln County (Cruickshank), which is outside the known breeding range. Winter. A bird, capable of flight and apparently in good health, was seen December 11 and 26, 1938, at Little River, Scarborough (Norton; J. F. Fanning), Ecology. Brewster (1924: 142) wrote that "the Ring-neck — unlike both species of Scaup — habitually shuns open water far from shore, except when seeking temporary asylum there ; that its favorite haunts are weedy or grass-grown shallows in flooded marshes, along the margins of rivers and in small ponds and lagoons — even those buried deep in forests." Remarks. Boardman (1S62: 129) listed this duck as "Rare. Does not breed" in the vicinity of Calais. Several years later, in a report paraphrasing a letter from Boardman, it was stated that he had found "several flocks of the Ringneck Duck, Fulix collaris, breeding on the [St. Croix] river, near Calais, the past season, and that he secured the old and 'chicks.' He states that he knows of no other instance of this duck breeding in New England" (Boardman, 1871a). Fuller details were published in the 1870 correspondence between Boardman and S. F. Baird (in Boardman, 1903: 178, 179, 204, 205). Boardman was authority for the statement in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884, 2: 27) that this species "is seen every summer in the vicinity of Calais, and that it breeds there." Later, in a reprint of a list published in PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 97 1899-1900, Boardman (1903:312) wrote: "Not uncommon: breeds." That this duck continued to breed in the St. Croix region during Boardman's time is shown by Squires (1946), who listed four sets of eggs collected by Boardman on May 29 (two sets) and 31, 1874, and May 13, 1876, at St. Stephen, New Brunswick. One set of four, collected on May 29, is now in the New Brunswick Museum (ibid.). The other May 29 set was listed among accessions' as "Four eggs of the Ring-necked Duck (Fulix collaris) from Milltown, Me." in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1875 (p. 74). The May 31 set is probably the 1874 record referred to in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884, 2: 27) as consisting of eleven eggs found in a nest "among reeds and thick grass on the banks of the St. Croix River." This last mentioned set and the May 13 one were both presented to the United States National Museum by Boardman (Squires, 1946). Squires was of the opinion that this species continued to breed in the general region around Calais, and that the gaps in the record were due to lack of observers. As to other parts of Maine at this time and even later, we have a picture of rare occurrence which, from the literature, appears to have been due to an actual scarcity of the species rather than to lack of competent observers. For Norway, Oxford County, A. E. Verrill (1862a: 153) wrote: "Spring and fall. Not common." Smith (1882- 83 : 184) considered the Ring-neck uncommon and irregular, and wrote of a number (over six), shot in the spring of 1882 in Cumberland County, as an unusual occurrence. For the years 1886 to 1895, Brewster gave five fall occurrences at Umbagog, two of which were for young males, one taken on September 17, 1886, and the other on September 25, 1894. That part of Norton's files covering the period from about 1900 to the early 1920's shows the same picture of scarcity, with almost all records being for fall birds. After this, the Ring-neck began to occur more frequently. During the period from 1929 to 1933, I used to see a few in April at a place called Hildreth's Shore in Topsham on the Pleasant Point road to Merrymeeting Bay. Usually eight to a dozen birds lingered there for several days. On August 14, 1931, Major G. R. Meyer told Norton that, a week earlier, he had seen a female "Redhead" with nine half-grown young at Kingsbury Pond, which lies partly in Kingsbury Plantation, Piscataquis County, and partly in Mayfield Township, Somerset County, and that they had been seen there at other times. There is a report of nine young "scaups" seen with the female parent at Fryeburg, Oxford County, given in John B. May's mimeographed Items of Interest, dated August 6, 1932. There is little doubt that both 98 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology records, identified as species in which the females are very similar to the Ring-neck, actually refer to the present bird. For one thing, neither Redheads nor the scaups are known to breed in Maine, and, for another, the Ring-neck subsequently was found nesting in both localities mentioned. Chamberlain (1935: 316) saw four Ring-necks May 26 and 27, 1934, at Mud Pond near Ashland, Aroostook County. The late May date of this occurrence would seem to indicate nesting. It was not until 1937, however, that the first breeding record based on actual specimens was published, by Swanson (1937), since Boardman's time. This was the female and young, mentioned under Breeding, which were found August 6, 1936, at Grassy Pond. On August 17, two of the young were collected and positively identified. During this year, two persons reported to Norton that the Ring-neck had been breeding for several years in the vicinity of Fryeburg. By late 1938, Mendall had found the species nesting in Aroostook, Washington, Penobscot, and Piscataquis Counties. His data (Mendall, 1938) summed up the increase of this bird in summer in the east, including Maine and the Maritime Provinces. Two years later, Aldous and Mendall (1940: 31) stated that this duck "is now a regular migrant throughout Maine and is well distributed as a summer resident in the northern and central parts of the State." The year 1940 was the first in which there was a marked increase in summering birds in western Maine (Mendall). Yearly fluctuations are apparent already, since, according to Mendall, the species was not as numerous in 1941 as in 1940. On the whole, however, the general trend of nesting birds has been upward, the Ring-neck being more numerous than the Black Duck in some localities. Canvasback Aythya valisineria (Wilson) Transient, rare in fall (records for Oxford, Cumberland, Sagadahoc, Kennebec, and Washington Counties), and one spring record for Washington County; one winter record. No records since 1942. Spring. A pair was seen at close range, April 13 to 15, 1938, on Maguerrewock Stream, near Calais (Mendall). Fall. Most occurrences have been in the last half of October and the first week of November. The earliest is for four taken "about the eighth of October, 1896," at Nahumkeag Pond, Pittston, Kennebec County (Norton, 1916: 380), and the latest is for a drake shot on December 21, 1916, near Baileys Island, Casco Bay (Walch, 1926: 12). PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 99 Winter. Two drakes were seen on February 24, 19.33, in Back Cove, Portland (Norton). Ecology. This duck is a subsurface feeder, diving for submerged plant materials in fresh, brackish, and salt water. A favorite food is wild celery (VaJMsneria spiralis). I have no data to indicate that this species associates with other ducks in Maine; in fact, the contrary appears to be the case. Remarks. The status of this duck in fall seems not to have changed appreciably during the past 75 years. Norton (1916: 380-381), in compiling all available records of occurrence from about 1874 through the fall of 1915, listed 31 birds killed and two others seen. A number of early records have since come to light, including 15 birds shot, from 1842 to 1854, probably all in Cumberland County, by Loring. On November 4, 1942, six of these ducks were seen on the St. Croix River between Calais and Baring, by Lloyd Clark. A duck and drake were shot from this group and are in Clark's collection. Four days later (November 8), Clark saw about 25 at the same locality. These data, from Mendall, are for the most recent occurrence of the species in the state, insofar as records go. A male, shot October 26, 1896, at Levant, Penobscot County, had eaten wild celery (Gould, 1896). For corrections of records published by Knight (1908b: 97), see Norton (1916). Greater Scaup Duck Aythya marila nearctica (Stejneger) Winter resident, numerous to abundant, chiefly in sheltered salt water bays; transient, numerous in fall and early spring, mainly in coastal counties. Fall. Most birds arrive during the last half of October and the first half of November. At Merrymeeting Bay, "this duck may be seen from September 1, until the latter part of October or the first of November, [and] a few may remain until the latter part of November" (Walch, 1926: 13). Brewster (1924: 138) recorded having seen a duck on September 22, 1889, on the New Hampshire side of Lake Umbagog. Winter. Flocks are found from Casco Bay eastward. There is con- siderable shifting or wandering of local populations, probably caused by a fluctuating food supply. Spring. Birds depart in March and early April, although a few linger regularly until the last week in April. Late records are: May 14, 1922, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 13); a male seen on May 16, 1931, at Back Cove, Portland (Norton; Rich); another there 100 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology on May 24, 1939 (Norton) ; and a record for May 28, 1916, at Merry- meeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 13). Ecology. This is a gregarious duck. It feeds by diving in fresh, brackish, and salt water of shallow depth. The two scaups commonly associate with each other, forming sizable flocks or 'rafts.' Remarks. This species has decreased markedly as a wintering bird in the past 30 years. More have always wintered in southern New England than along our coast. During the winter of 1933-34, unusual numbers were noted in Casco Bay, having been driven out into the open by ice forming in coves and sheltered places (J. R. Wallace; Norton). Both scaups were notably scarce at Merrymeeting Bay in the fall of 1905 (Noble, 1905d: 65). Whereas they were reported by some observers as very common along the coast of eastern Maine in the fall of 1940, Mendall noted that actually there was a definite decrease from the previous year. The stomach of a winter male from the Fox Islands, Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County, was filled with shells of Macoma balthica (Norton, 1909f:439). On April 30, 1939, Norton timed 50 submergences in rather turbid water in the Androscoggin River at Brunswick. The dives ranged from 6 to 20 seconds, averaging 14, with 26 dives from 10 to 15 seconds. Lesser Scaup Duck Aythya affinis (Eyton) Transient, common to numerous in fall and early spring, chiefly near and on the coast; rare winter resident coastwise. Fall. Most transients are seen in October and early November. The earliest specific record is for one shot on September 16, 1923, in Merrymeeting Bay (A. Ridley). Late dates are for about 20 seen on November 16, 1942, near Calais (Mendall), and a young male shot on November 17, 1919, at W 7 estbrook (F. Babb). Winter. A. G. Dorr took specimens near Bucksport, Hancock County, in the winter of 1897 (Gardner, 1899). Thirty -one were seen by Maurice Sullivan during the 1938 Christmas census on Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941: 54). Spring. Records range from March 14, 1910, for a female shot at Scarborough, to May 4, 1947, for a pair seen at Pembroke, Washington County, by Mendall, who had first noted the pair on April 30. On April 10, 1945, Mendall saw about 40 on Corinna Stream, Penobscot County, the only flock he saw in the interior during that month. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 101 Ecology. See the preceding species, from which the present one differs chiefly in showing a greater preference for fresh water. Remarks. Apparently the Lesser Scaup never has been as common as the Greater Scaup in Maine, so that its decrease in the last few decades, though less noticeable than that of the latter, has been pro- portionately as great or even greater. This species was notably scarce in the fall of 1905 at Merrymeeting Bay (Noble, 1905d:65); the 1939 fall flight in eastern Maine was much smaller than that of 1940 (Mendall). American Goldeneye Bucephala clangula amcricana (Bonaparte) Resident (locally migrant); in summer, a fairly common breeder .in unsettled inland areas, with non-breeders uncommon along the coast from Muscongus Bay eastward, and in winter, common to abundant coastwise and common inland wherever there is open water. Probably many are transients, in spring and fall, and also winter residents from outside the state. Spring. In late February, numbers in southwestern coastal waters show an increase, which continues into late March. Throughout the latter half of March and to about April 20, birds move to inland waters as the ice breaks up. Small flocks, perhaps chiefly first-year birds, linger on salt water into May. Fall. Most of the migratory movement occurs from October 10 to November 20, the peak coming in early November. Many inland birds, when frozen out, go to the few swift streams which remain open, or to the coast. Breeding and summer. The nest is in a cavity, from 5 to 60 feet above ground, in a hollow tree. It may be shallow or at a depth of 5 or 6 feet from the entrance, and usually, but not always, is lined with down. Eight to 12 eggs usually are laid; Brewster found 5 to 19 at Umbagog, the latter number he believed to have been produced by one duck. Completed clutches are found in Maine from May 10 to 18. Incubation has been reported variably, outside of Maine, as lasting 20 to 30 days. One clutch under observation on the Penobscot River in 1946 was incubated more than 30 days before hatching (Mendall). The male often remains near the nest. The ducklings remain in the nest a day or so and then, on signal from the duck, climb up the wall of the cavity to the entrance and drop to the ground or water. Fledging probably requires about two months. One brood is raised yearly. These ducks breed in their second summer. 102 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Non-breeding birds are uncommon on the coast from Muscongus Bay eastward. Occasionally, one or two are seen in Merrymeeting Bay in August and early September. Whiter. This duck winters wherever it can find open water, small flocks remaining inland on rapids in streams and rivers. The majority of them are, of course, to be found on salt water at this season. Part of our breeding population undoubtedly moves out of the state, and some birds from north and east of Maine winter with us. Ecology. In spring these ducks search for hollow-tree nesting sites about lakes, ponds, rivers, and even small streams. Unlike the Wood Duck, this species does not nest at any distance from water. It feeds primarily over a soft bottom in 5 to 18 feet of water, and moves forward slightly while submerged. On marine waters, it feeds in shallow, quiet waters in harbors, coves, reaches, and sheltered areas inside of bars. When driven out of these areas by ice, it appears to manage quite well in feeding over a hard bottom along outer shores. This species is found on the same waters with scaups, Buffleheads, American and Hooded Mergansers, but usually keeps apart from them. For Lake Umbagog, Brewster (1924: 143) wrote: "They obtain most of their food by diving not far from shore, in open water ranging in depth from two or three to eight or ten feet, but sometimes seek it on or very near the surface, in grass-grown shallows. As a rule they are decidedly less gregarious than most Ducks, rarely consorting with any of the others, and not often forming flocks which contain more than eight or ten birds of their own kind, while very many of them are found singly or in couples. This unsocial tendency is most pro- nounced in late summer and early autumn. It is by no means confined to old birds, for the young almost invariably scatter widely before the first of August, when scarce half-grown and wholly incapable of flight, yet quite able, it would seem, to get their own living." Remarks. Aside from the fact that the wintering population in the Portland region increased steadily from 1935 to 1941 (Norton), not much is known about past fluctuations of this bird in Maine. It is the fourth most numerous species of duck found in the state. Twelve years after the ending of spring shooting, Norton (1928b) remarked that it was extending its breeding range in the state. About Mt. Katahdin, it was found regularly during the ten years before 1932, and less frequently since then (Palmer and Taber, 1946: 304). In 1947, Mendall wrote me that there had been a "noticeable decline in breeding Goldeneyes in Maine for the past four years." One of the greatest factors in the ecology of this bird is lack of sufficient nesting sites. As it occupies nestboxes much more readily than does the Wood Duck, this lack can be remedied in some localities. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 103 Fairly large concentrations of this species, usually caused by local weather conditions, are noted occasionally. One of these was reported for January, 1925, on the lower Kennebec River (Spinney), and on March 17 of the same year, thousands of Goldeneyes gathered in upper Casco Bay (J. R. Wallace). During the last week of December, 1933, when various inner coves and narrows were ice-bound, great numbers gathered in lower Portland Harbor (Norton). A wide variety of food is eaten, comprising both animal and vege- table matter. Norton (1909f : 439) noted seeds of eelgrass (Zoster a) and shells of two snails (Lacuna vincta and Margarita helicina), which are associates on the eelgrass. His later notes list sculpin eggs as common food. Knight (1908b: 101) mentioned watching these ducks fish for mollusks in rapids and rips, where they also obtained "a shiny vegetable substance of undeterminable nature. They also eat the smaller fish . . . and will not disdain trout fry on occasion. Along the coast practically the only food I have found in their stomachs consists of mussels and other mollusks which they obtain by diving and swallow bodily, shell and all." Brewster (1924: 145) saw one feeding in shallow water at Umbagog in October, and on shooting it, found "in its stomach a mass of waterbeetles, but no traces of other food." Norton timed 64 submergences in 5 to 18 feet of water, finding a range of 7 to 36 seconds. One series of 12 dives in 6 to 9 feet of water, over a level bottom, varied from 22 to 36 seconds. One bird dove 15 times, in fresh water 3 to 12 feet deep, the range being 7 to 25 seconds with an average of 11. Mixed sets of Goldeneye and Hooded Merganser eggs are found quite often, but the Wood Duck lays with this species less often. A hybrid, between a Hooded Merganser and American Goldeneye, was shot on May 2, 1854, at Scarborough, by Loring. This bird was de- scribed by Dr. Samuel Cabot (1856), and has been described further and figured by Ball (1934). The mounted specimen is number 17972 in the collection of the Boston Society of Natural History. According to Brewster (1924: 149), Goldeneyes often may practice polygamy. On one occasion, seeing two females emerge from a cavity in rapid succession, he suspected that perhaps the two ducks were incubating, alternately, the same clutch. Interested persons should read the excellent breeding data on this species by Brewster (1900; 1924: 147-162). Gunners do not make very large kills of this duck. The 398 shot by Loring from 1842 to 1854 is exceptional. Displaying and posturing are in evidence to some degree in De- cember and January, and very noticeable during February and early 104 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology March. The following data are condensed selections from Norton's observations at Back Cove, Portland. December 8, 1938 — Three males and two females swam in one direction for some seconds, then turned and went back on the same course. The males had heads erect, with necks slanting forward; suddenly one drake after another threw his head back on the rump, and as suddenly thrust it forward. The leading duck dove and the others followed suit. January 11, 1940 — Two males rushed at each other several times, but dove just before colliding and swam off a short distance. On emerging, each bird would thrust his head back, then resume a normal position and feed a while before repeating the performance. Another male, in a sort of crouching posture with head stretched forward, swam about in this position for many minutes, interrupting to throw its head back several times or to dive. February 12, 1941— The birds showed a tendency to gather in small, compact groups. One group started swimming and one of its members began displaying. This drake put his head forward at a slight angle, then jerked it forward three or four times and raised it slowly to a vertical position. He then jerked it vigorously back, bringing the crown on his rump; the bill was open. The head was then brought forward vigorously and the bird resumed a normal position. "The vigor of this forward thrust may bring into function the collapsible bulb of the trachea, to produce a sound." February 13, 1931— A flock of about 80 was observed, near noon, strung out in a line on the lee shore and not diving, but performing their courtship antics with vigor. March 8, 1940— A duck swam, neck stretched forward, with a drake in pursuit. The male overtook and mounted the female, grasping her head with his bill and forcing her completely under water. She soon stood somewhat erect, so that both birds were at a 45-degree angle with the surface. They then parted. Barrow's Goldeneye Bucephala islandica (Gmelin) Winter resident, uncommon on salt water from Penobscot Bay eastward, in lesser numbers westward to Scarborough, and rare on fresh water; transient, uncommon in late fall and early spring on salt water, and rare inland. Fall. Migration occurs mainly in the latter half of November. A very early occurrence is that of an adult male shot on September 18, 1927, at Maquoit Bay near Brunswick, Cumberland County, and from which I made a sketch. Other early records are: two seen on October 24, 1940, at unstated place on the Penobscot River (Mendall PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 105 in Hasbrouck, 1944b: 549); an adult male shot on November 5, 1929, at Freeport, Cumberland County (Norton); two shot on November 12, 1923, at Maquoit Bay (Walch, 1926: 13); an adult male seen on November 14, 1928, at Portland (C. M. Mower); and an adult male shot on November 14, 1940, at Indian Point on Mt. Desert Island (Bond). Winter. This species should be looked for wherever the American Goldeneye winters. Records indicate that small numbers winter regu- larly on salt water in Penobscot Bay, in Hancock County, and in Washington. Norton, by getting heads of female and young golden- eyes from gunners, established the fact that the present species was by no means as rare in Cumberland County as had been supposed. In all probability, a similar check would prove that this duck occurs in greater numbers at the places mentioned above than present records indicate. Brower and others (1939) reported having seen about 25 at Mt. Desert Island on December 24, 1938. An inland record is for a male and several females seen on December 25, 1937, in the Penobscot River at Enfield, Penobscot County (O. K. Scott). Spring. Most birds depart during the first 20 days of March. Later records are: seven seen on March 24, 1945, at Middle Bay, Cumber- land County (C. Packard); an adult male shot on March 26, and a young male on the 2Sth, in 1912, at Scarborough (Norton, 1913: 575); specimen taken on April 10, 1885, and another on the same date in 1888, at Bar Harbor on Mt. Desert Island (Hasbrouck, 1944b: 549); one seen on April 12, 1939, at Blue Hill, Hancock County (Mendall in Hasbrouck, ibid.); three seen on April 15, 1947, and two on April 23, 1946, at Maguerrewock Stream, Calais (Mendall); a specimen taken in April, 1896, at Bucksport, Hancock County (Hasbrouck, 1944b: 550); and an inland record for a specimen taken on May 10, 1882, at Milford, Penobscot County (ibid. 549). Ecology. Whereas records to date seem to indicate that this duck is more partial to salt water than is the American Goldeneye, perhaps if both species were present in equal numbers, their habitat in the non-breeding season would prove to be identical. Remarks. Early references to breeding in Maine may be considered erroneous. T. M. Brewer (1879c: 149-150) wrote: "In Maine and New Brunswick a few pairs are found each summer undoubtedly breeding, though no nests have been detected, as far south as the forty-fifth degree. Mr. George A. Boardman informs me that they are somewhat rare in the neighborhood of Calais, but become much more common on the St. Croix River in the winter." Later {in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 2: 43), Brewer made practically the same statement, giving Boardman as authority for a few seen each summer 106 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology near Calais, but no nests having been found. These data were used by Elliot (1898: 180). Boardman (1899a) reported that, 50 years earlier, this duck had nested rarely on the St. Croix River, and later (1903: 312), gave as its status: "Common in winter." I doubt that there has been any marked change of status of this duck in Maine over the past 60 years, but data are too incomplete to prove it. A male in first winter plumage weighed 38 ounces, two adult males weighed 42 and 43 ounces, and several adult females ranged from 28 to 32 (Norton). An interesting record is for a young male taken on March 3, 1882, at offshore Matin icus Island, and formerly in the Hardy collection. Although Knight (1908b: 102) stated that this bird was present only in the "very height of winter," records given above show occurrence over a longer span of seasons. Bufflehead Bucephala albeola (Linnaeus) Winter resident, common to numerous, mainly on sheltered salt water areas; transient, uncommon to common in fall and spring on fresh water inland, and in greater numbers coastwise; in summer (not known to breed), occasional inland, and rare along the coast. Spring. Migration occurs in late March and throughout April. Late records are for 17, apparently first-year birds, seen on May 3, 1936, in Back Cove, Portland (Norton), a pair seen on May 4, 1926, on Back River at Georgetown, Sagadahoc County (Spinney), and two females seen on May 15, 1938, at Perry, Washington County (Mendall). Early May inland records are perhaps for summering birds (see Summer). Fall. Birds arrive on salt water from about October 14 to November 20, and the population does not show an increase after the latter date. Earliest record for the Portland region is for a bird seen October 7, 1931, in Johnsons Cove (Rich). Flight year. On October 22, 1930, about 2,000 birds, "the largest number that I have ever seen," were at Back Cove, Portland (Rich). Summer. Although it seems probable that this species has bred rarely in Maine, there is no certain breeding record (see Remarks). Brewster (1924: 163-164) reported seeing two ducks and a drake on June 1, 1880, on the Cambridge River in Oxford County, under circum- stances which led him to believe the species was breeding there. In July, 1921, J. F. and W. Fanning saw nine of these ducks at Daicy PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 107 (sometimes spelled Daicey or Daisy) Pond in Township 3, Range 10, Piscataquis County (W. Fanning, 1921: 77). Two were seen in early June and to July 11, 1937, on the Medoniak River in Lincoln County (Cruickshank). Winter. Flocks are found on sheltered salt water all along the coast. Ecology. This active little bird generally is found on the quiet shallow (three to ten feet) water, over soft bottom, of reaches, sheltered coves, and bays. The feeding depth is usually four to six feet, and the water so shallow that the flats beneath are exposed for an hour or more at low tide. Here, the Bufflehead finds crustaceans, worms, and other food. Submergences are brief and the birds emerge at nearly the same spot where they go under. Mendall quite often has found these ducks associating with American Goldeneyes, more often in fall than in spring. Single birds occasionally are seen with Hooded Mergansers. Remarks. Although Boardman made no mention of breeding in his 1862 list, undoubtedly he was the source of the following reports: "summer resident (Me.)" (T. M. Brewer, 1875: 448); a few "remain and breed, nesting in trees," near Calais (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884,2: 50); and, "Breeds from Maine" (Elliot, 1898: 186). Boardman later (1899a) stated that, 50 years earlier, this duck nested on the St. Croix River; he made no mention of contemporary breeding. Then, in a list first published in late 1899 and early 1900, he (Boardman, 1903: 313) gave its status as: "Common spring and fall; breeds." In 1940, Aldous and Mendall (1940: 26) stated that a "few of the birds probably breed in the northern part of the State," but Mendall recently (1948) wrote me that he was beginning to doubt this. Because of the Bufflehead's habits of gathering in compact groups and of feeding close to shore, it formerly was one of the principal targets of young gunners. It was greatly reduced in numbers before 1S90. "The Bufflehead . . . has become so rare that seldom is there heard of a specimen being taken" (Spinney, 1901: 54). With spring and winter protection, this duck began a slow but steady increase which became noticeable in the early 1930's, at a time when the population was dangerously low in other parts of the bird's range. From 1935 to 1940, the increase, although not great, was most pro- nounced, and it has continued at a slower rate since. This duck was markedly more numerous in northern and eastern Maine in 1940 than for several years preceding and the year following (Mendall). At Back Cove, Portland, Norton timed about 60 submergences in 6 to 10 feet of water, finding a range of 5 to 23 seconds with most dives at 12 to 18. A great deal of display and posturing are observed in January and 108 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology February, and by March, most of the birds are paired. The male often swims about the female, with head forward at an angle, bobbing it up and down, displaying the conspicuous white patch. In another display, the male swims along with neck stretched forward and bill on the water, then suddenly jerking the head upwards and backwards, and returning to the outstretched position. They often interrupt such posturing to make short flights over the females. (Summarized from various observations by Norton.) The "Divers or Didapers" of Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80) probably were either Buffleheads or Hooded Mergansers — most likely the former. The description of habitat as among breakers and near rocks, as given by Walter Rich (1907a: 355), certainly is not typical of this species. Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus) Winter resident, abundant on salt water; transient, abundant in spring and fall coastwise, and occasional in spring and uncommon in fall inland chiefly on the larger bodies of water; a few are seen in summer along the coast. Spring. The population on our coast increases in March and early April when birds arrive from southerly points, and many flocks move into bays in the latter month. They are very restless for some time before departing, large flocks often circling for hours; this has been described by Mackay (1892: 331), as observed at Scarborough, and at Saco in York County. The birds depart from about April 20 to May 20, going overland at a high altitude, with few stopping at inland points. Late dates for large numbers in Cumberland County waters are: May 22, 1929 (J. R. Wallace), and May 23, 1869 and May 24, 1876 (Smith). Occasional transients are seen in this region until the end of May. Fall. Although small flocks occasionally are reported on salt water the first week in October, most of the birds arrive from October 20 through November. Early dates for sizable flocks are October 12, 1920, for Casco Bay (Norton), and October 19, 1897, for Seguin (Spinney). The earliest inland record is for six seen October 2, 1944, at Jackman, Somerset County (W. Foerster). Summer. There are reports of breeding, but these are too indefinite to include here. (See Remarks.) Some specific records for summer are: two (one injured) seen on June 2, 1940, and a female seen on June 19, 1937, at Scarborough (Norton); a male, apparently healthy PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 109 and in the "breeding plumage" as pictured in Forbush (1925: pi. 16), seen on June 20, 1941, at the Bangor-Brewer dam on the Penobscot (Weston); a male seen on June 27, 1931, at Green Island, off Petit Manan Point, Washington County (Norton) ; one seen on July 5, 1938, in Muscongus Bay (Cruickshank) ; a female seen on July 9, 1931, off Whitehead Island, Knox County (Norton); a flock of 35, of which 18 were shot, on July 18, 18G8, at Libby River, Scarborough (Smith); unstated number present through June and July, 1947, in Muscongus Bay (Cruickshank) ; a female seen from July 30 to August 2, 1938, at South Brooksville, Hancock County (K. Tousey); a female seen on July 31, 1938, at the Heron Islands, Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County (Palmer); two seen on August 19 and 20, 1941, at Scarborough (Norton); one with scoters on August 28, 1937, in Mt. Desert Narrows (T. Eliot); and one seen on September 15, 1941, at Scarborough (Norton). Winter. At this season, flocks of varying size are found the length of the coast, mainly outside of harbors and other sheltered waters. Ecology. The Oldsquaw is one of our strongest divers, and most independent of depth of water and character of bottom. Feeding places commonly noted are: over a hard bottom where kelp grows (to about 18 feet depth) ; near rocky shores where Fucus is the charac- teristic growth (three to nine feet); in harbors over Zostera beds (five to 18 feet); and off sandy beaches on our southwestern coast. These ducks also feed in much deeper water, although less often. Much of the food eaten is gasteropod mollusks and amphipod and isopod crustaceans, some of which live on or among the plant growth just listed, and others swim near the bottom along the sandy beaches and submerged bars. Although Oldsquaws and other seafowl are seen in 'rafts,' obser- vations show that this gregarious duck keeps within its own group in a 'raft,' and does not mingle closely with the others. Remarks. Job Rackliff, who had an exceptional knowledge of seafowl, told Norton that, in the 1860's, he found a nest and six eggs by the roots of a spruce tree, at Lobster Cove on Sprucehead Island, Knox County. David Leavitt, of Cape Elizabeth, saw a female with six small young, in July, 1878, off Watt Ledge near the Cape. Less definite is a gunner's report that a brood was seen in July, 1918, at Scarborough (Norton). There are other indefinite reports. Knight (1908b: 104) wrote: "The few individuals which remain all summer along the coast are crippled or otherwise barren birds which never show any indication of breeding with us, and such as have been dis- sected by me were physically unable to breed." For the several decades prior to the 1890's, there are reports of 110 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology flocks of thousands of Oldsquaws 'bedding' in the bays in early spring. There was a marked decline in numbers, however, so great was the slaughter of these unwary birds. With the abolition of winter and spring shooting, numbers have increased and the characteristic spring gatherings are again a feature of our coast. Large numbers have been noted in Casco Bay in some springs since 1927. This species is now second to the Black Duck in abundance in Maine. For the period from 1842 to 1851, Rogers shot 378 Oldsquaws; from 1891 to 1912, Pillsbury's journal listed 282 killed. This is chiefly for the Scarborough region and does not represent concentrated gunning for this duck, which is a poor table bird. Gunners used to go in parties for a week of seafowl shooting, often killing large numbers of 'coots' [scoters], Oldsquaws, and eiders. Willard (1895: 164) reported such a trip, about 1884, to Wood Island, Casco Bay, on which 372 birds were killed, mostly Oldsquaws, there being only 16 'coots.' Adult males average about 36 ounces and females 28, and 16 birds yield a pound of feathers (Norton). An interesting note on behavior is from E. D. Rackliff, who, many years ago, observed Oldsquaws flying to Bay Ledge buoy, off Isle au Haut, where they would dive to feed. On one occasion the buoy came loose and drifted into very deep water, but at the usual time the ducks came to the buoy to feed. Upon diving, however, they found the water too deep and soon flew away. This species was recorded first for Maine by Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80), who included "Hounds, old Wives" among the seafowl. The appropriateness of the former name is evident to anyone who has beard the voices of the drakes, or who has noted mention of "bugling" in gunners' journals. H. Herrick (1873: 38) saw a pair in "full breeding plumage," which were shot on June 18, 1872, in the Grand Manan archipelago, New Brunswick, and concluded that the species might be breeding there. Eastern Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus) Winter resident, fairly common, a few flocks found at only three or four localities (outer islands and ledges) eastward from western Penobscot Bay, and occasional farther westward ; transient, occasional in spring and fall on salt water; one inland record. Fall. Harlequins arrive from October 18 to November 15. An early date is October 10, 1924, when an adult male was shot at Richmond Island, near Cape Elizabeth, and the latest fall occurrence for the PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 111 western half of the coast is for a bird shot on November 21, 190S, by Pillsbury, at Pine Point, Scarborough (Norton). At points away from the few wintering spots, and where seafowl are shot regularly, a Harlequin is taken about once in seven to ten years. Winter. Small flocks (6 to 20 birds) are present every year at a few localities. The best known of these is Isle au Haut, where Harlequins have wintered regularly for at least 60 years. Spring. The species departs from March 5 to 31. A female was shot on the late date of April 17, 1880, at Isle au Haut, and a male on the still later date of April 30, 1882, at nearby Swans Island (Hardy). Ecology. This is a bird of the surf, little flocks diving in seaward 'gutters' or gulches, where the sea rushes in, or along rocky shores or ledges swept by the sea. Harlequins which are shot in areas other than the wintering grounds are usually in company with Oldsquaws. Remarks. Manly Hardy's unpublished notes contain records of 88 Harlequins, shot and delivered to him in the flesh, from January 28, 1880 to November 10, 1882. Most of these were killed about Isle au Haut, but a few were taken at Swans Island to the eastward, at the offshore Matinicus Islands, and elsewhere in that general region. There were 61 males and 27 females, but these figures are no indication of sex ratio since, it was noted, gunners tried to kill as many males as possible. One female, a large bird in fine condition, had the normal color of the back of the head "intermixed with hoary." After handling these specimens, Hardy reported that he had seen more mended broken bones than in any other species with which he was familiar. This condition may have been a result of these birds' diving in turbu- lent water about ledges, as discussed below. Norton (1896: 229-234) wrote of visiting, in February, 1894, some of the outermost islands in Penobscot Bay where these birds were found. Although not stated, these were Little and Big Green Islands and Green Island Seal Ledge, off South Thomaston, Knox County. Fred Rackliff, Norton's companion on the trip, "pointed out numerous gutters, where he said that when a youth he had seen 'Seamice' crowding in, when sad havoc was often made among them by the boy gunners. The older gunners seldom made any effort to take them, as they were of small value" (ibid. 233). Norton stated that this duck was common only on the "eastern half of the coast, where it is slowly but steadily decreasing" (ibid. 234). Although winter shooting long since has been abolished, this slow decrease, noted on the winter range, has continued to the present. It may be caused partly by illegal gunning or other factors at this season, or to factors operating at other seasons elsewhere, or a combination of these. Hardy noted that the food of this species "consists almost entirely 112 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology of small marine shellfish," and mentioned that a female, shot January 21, 1881, in Jericho Bay, had eaten "periwinkles, small clams, sand fleas, and limpets." On December 27, 1919, at Great Spoon Island, east of Isle au Haut, Norton saw about 50 Harlequins, the largest flock containing 25 or 30 birds. Twelve were shot that day, the stomach contents of nine of these, showing numbers of individuals of various animals, being given in Table 1. Table 1 Stomach Contents of Nine Eastern Harlequin Ducks 1 Specimen no.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 tr. tr. 3 tr. m. 3 m. m. m. tr. tr. tr. 1 3 5 1 1 1 1 10+2 egg 15 1 + frags. 4 13 20 6 caps. 10 3 4 2 20 2 2 1 11 tr. 11 8 2 14 1 4 m. 1 tr. 21 + frags. 2 m. tr. Lepidonotus Orchestia ? Gammarus Gammarellus angulosus .... Pycnogonidae Chiton Acmaea testudinalis Littorina Purpura [Thais] lapillus . . . Buccinum endatum Mytilus edulis Lucina vincta Lucina margarita Saxicava Asterias shell frags., mostly Purpura m. 1 Abbreviations: tr. =trace; m. =many; frags. =fragments; egg caps. =egg capsules. Norton timed 25 submergences in and near surf in water of unknown depth. One series of 6 dives ranged from 30 to 35 seconds. The range for all was 5 to 35 seconds, with an average of 19. Writing of the Brunswick, Cumberland County, region, Walch (1926: 6) stated that the Harlequin Duck "was last shot by the late Mr. David Scribner of Topsham in the fall of 1891 or 1892." Addi- tional facts concerning this occurrence are: five birds were seen by Mr. Scribner and Mr. Lucien White; three were shot but none pre- PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 113 served; and the locality was off Pleasant Point at Merrymeeting Bay. This is the only inland record for this species. In describing the manner in which these birds were seen to dive, Norton (1896:231) wrote: "The Harlequins were attracted to the largest billow, one which surged high and sharp, and broke about fifty yards from the reef where its force was spent. For considerable inter- vals the ducks would sit facing the wind, but not advancing, slightly removed from the fury of the breaker. Then drawing nearer to it they would dive to feed. Frequently all would be under at once, but this diving seemed to depend slightly on the action of the sea, as a portion of the flock, apparently not ready to dive on being threatened by a breaker, would plunge into it, only to rise after some time had elapsed. After a few plunges they would rest . . . Now they were in little groups scattered parallel with the length of the wave, awaiting the rushing flood. . . As it rushed over the inequalities of the bottom its crest began breaking at corresponding intervals. High above them it topped, and as its crest broke in white foam, the little ducks plunged headlong into its front, almost instantly reappearing in its train." Rackliff observed (in Norton, ibid. 233) that these ducks "were very playful in their actions, frequently flying in to a chosen resort to drop into the water and, without a decided stop, resume their flight to another quarter; or they would fly in and dive from the air, reappearing on the wing and away again." Later unpublished notes on behavior, made by Norton, March 24 to 28, 1938, at Big Spoon Island and Isle au Haut, are given, in part, in the following paragraphs. "At Big Spoon Island, one group of three, two of them females, allowed me to walk toward them in plain view, and were reluctant to fly; when they did fly, it was only to round the point close at hand and join a flock there. Their combined number was 16 — the largest gathering seen by us. With their short, thick, necks, these little birds are chunky in appearance. In flight the head and body are carried on a nearly level plane, the entire flock usually moving in a compact formation, at a low elevation above the water, their short wings beating rapidly. When diving outside of the breakers, they spring just clear of the water and go down perpendicularly. One bird dives, soon to be followed by others, the whole flock being under together. They appear to go nearly straight down and up again, emerging at the same spot whence they submerged. "At Isle au Haut a flock would move in through a breaker and play in the swirling water close to shore, riding like bubbles on the agitated surface, now being washed over some submerged rock, dabbing here and there as they went, among the swarms of swimming crustaceans. 114 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Now and again, when two breakers would come in close together and stand at a level for a number of seconds, the Harlequins would seize these occasions to dive very close to the rocks, remaining submerged for the short space of 10 to 12 seconds. "Hordes of Amphipods (Gammarus and Gammarellus) and Isopods (Idothea) swarmed in the turbulent water, dashing into crannies and among seaweeds with the outwash, to await the next onrush of water to swim forth again. These were easy prey for the Harlequins. "After coming to the surface, the birds would often rise on end and flap their short wings vigorously. The long, pointed, tails were usually carried raised at a low angle above the axis of their bodies. "The full-plumaged males seemed to keep close together in the flock, though they by no means dominated its movements ; one or two females took the lead in any new venture, while the rest followed. In one flock, swimming outside the breakers, a male would raise the forward part of the wings to a level with the back, holding the tips close to the sides of the body and, in a diving position, lower the head to the surface of the water and rush at a female. She, without moving her wings, and with the forward part of her body slightly raised above the surface of the water, rushed rapidly forward, keeping away from the male. These chases were brief. "On two occasions we saw several standing on the rocks above reach of ordinary waves. They stood and preened, or, those on the higher part of the rock, on finishing their toilet, laid down on their bellies. One group of six was observed thus for some time. Two were full- plumaged males, which remained at the lower part of the rock, just above the surging water. They suddenly saw a lone female, swimming toward the rock. Both males flew out, alighting just before they reached her, but heading in a direction to cross her wake diagonally, when they turned on the water and, raising their wings in the manner previously described, rushed after her. She rushed ahead in the usual fashion, and all reached the rock on the top of a wave, where they brought their feet into action, ran nimbly up beyond the water, and all began preening. "While watching a flock playing in the breakers near us, we heard a conversational note, que-que-que, very much like the peep of young domestic ducks. The Harlequins locally were called 'squeakers' — a voice name. The birds resorted with much regularity to particular chasms in the surf -washed shores; these chasms being locally called 'guzzles,' from the guzzling sound of water surging in and out of them. Squeaker Guzzle is a geographical name at several points among the outer islands and Isle au Haut has its Squeaker Cove on its southern shoreline." PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 115 Mention of occurrence at Portland in August (in Brownson, 1909: 81) is an error (Norton). Audubon (1835: 612) reported the Harlequin breeding on the "Seal, White Head and Grand Manan Islands" at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy. After visiting Grand Manan in 1850 and finding none of these ducks there, T. M. Brewer (1852: 298-299) stated that Audubon was in error, probably having confused this species with the Red-breasted Merganser. In writing of the same area, Boardman (1862: 130), who was familiar with Audubon's writings, stated that a "few apparently somewhat disabled individuals breed on the islands." Considering Hardy's observation on the number of mended bones in this species, it is easy to assume that, particularly after rough winters, some disabled individuals were unable to make the northward flight and so remained south of the usual breeding range. On the assumption that this could have been the case, occurrence of birds in summer would have been very irregular because of the uneven weather conditions in winter on the coast, and increasingly less in numbers as the species as a whole decreased. So the fact that Brewer found no Harlequins at Grand Manan did not indicate necessarily that Audubon had not found them 17 years earlier. The argument is strengthened also by the following points: the type of localities where Audubon reported the presence of this duck and his description of nesting sites are in fairly close accord with the known nesting habits of this bird else- where; and, it is highly improbable that Audubon would have mistaken this bird for so different a duck as the Red-breasted Merganser. At this late date, however, when the species is so much scarcer than formerly, the matter cannot be settled conclusively. Labrador Duck Camptorhynchus labradorius (Gmelin) No certain record of this bird, extinct since about 1878, but there can be no reasonable doubt that it formerly visited our coast. Audubon (1838: 271) wrote that this duck was found "along the coasts of Nova Scotia, Maine and Massachusetts, during the most severe cold of winter." In the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History (1859, vol. 6, p 359) mention is made, under accessions for February 3, 1858, of a Labrador Duck from Caleb Loring, Jr. Although Loring did almost all of his shooting at Scarborough, he did hunt elsewhere rarely, and so this is not an absolutely certain Maine record. 116 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Remarks. Apparently the above mentioned specimen was lost from sight and, years later, a young male having no label was found in the collection and described by W. S. Brooks (1912), without mention of Loring. C. W. Johnson (1913:2), however, wrote: "The Society is further indebted to Mr. W. S. Brooks for his work on the storage collection of skins. In the course of rearranging and identifying these, he found a Labrador Duck, the 44th known specimen, and probably the one given by Caleb Loring in 1858." In his early list, Boardman (1862: 130) gave occurrence of this species as "Winter. Rare" at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, and later (1903: 313) wrote: "Grand Manan; very rare, none of late." A male and female formerly were in the Boardman collection, as listed by Rowley (1877: 223). The female, an adult, was alleged to have been taken in 1862, at Swampscott, Massachusetts (Dutcher, 1894: 8), and the male was listed as "nearly adult," and shot at Grand Manan (J. C. Phillips, 1926: 61). These two specimens were sold to Charles B. Cory about 1880, and Cory's collection was sold, in 1894, to the Chicago Museum of Natural History, where they now are kept. A female was shot by Simeon F. Cheney, early in 1871, in the Grand Manan archipelago, but subsequently it was lost by a New York taxidermist (Dutcher, 1894: 6-7). The species probably became ex- tinct less than a decade after this date. J. A. Allen (1886: 232) cited T. M. Brewer (1877a: 46), who wrote that this duck had been abundant in the Boston market in the winter of 1836-37. In William Brewster's copy of Allen's paper, now in the Museum of Comparative Zoology library, is this marginal note in Brewster's handwriting: "The accuracy of this statement denied most emphatically by Dr. S. Cabot just before his death." Samuel Cabot was an active ornithologist in Boston at the time of the alleged abundance. This merely places an accent on the obscurity which surrounds this extinct bird. Steller's Eider Polysticta stelleri (Pallas) One record. An adult male, shot on December 3, 1926, at Scarbor- ough, by Nicholas Davis, was secured by Dr. H. H. Brock; it was with two or three Oldsquaws (Norton). The mounted specimen is now in the Brock collection at the Portland Society of Natural History, where I examined it in 1947. palmer: maine birds 117 Northern Eider Somateria mollissima borealis (Brehm) Winter resident, status not well known but at least occasional on salt water (probably numerous in eastern areas). Migrations. The earliest fall record is for a male shot on October 19, 190S, at Black Horse Ledge, near Isle au Haut (Jenney, 1908). The latest spring record is for a bird shot on April 6, 1903, in Casco Bay (Lord in Knight, 1908b: 107). Winter. Specimens are known from Cape Elizabeth, Penobscot and Jericho Bays, and Gouldsboro, Hancock County. Ecology. The known specimens have been taken with the American Eider. Remarks. When first recording this eider for Maine, Brewster (1885b) wrote that its occurrence from Penobscot Bay eastward was "far from rare or accidental." For the vicinity of Kent's Island, some six miles southeast of Grand Manan, New Brunswick, Gross (1938a: 388) wrote: "During the winter months great rafts of Eider Ducks, sometimes comprising thousands of individuals, frequent the waters off the southern end of Kent's Island but the birds at this season of the year, for the greater part, are the Northern Eider." And further (ibid. 399): "The winter population of Kent's Island arrives in the latter part of October and by the middle of November is represented by thousands of individuals. At this time they are to be seen in great rafts off the southern end of the island. The winter birds killed by local gunners have proved to be Northern Eider." American Eider Somateria mollissima dresseri Sharpe Summer resident, a common to numerous nester on islands eastward from western Penobscot Bay (several records for Muscongus and one for Casco Bay), the drakes and immature birds abundant westward into Muscongus Bay, numerous to Seguin, and occasional farther west- ward; transient, abundant in spring and fall on marine waters; winter resident, numerous to abundant at sea and about many islands. Some may be resident (locally migrant). Four records for occurrence a short distance inland. Spring. In March the flocks begin to move eastward along the coast, the movement continuing until late in April. An adult male was seen on May 8, 1897, at Scarborough (Norton), and inland, two drakes were seen on May 19, 1943, just above the Bangor-Brewer dam on the 118 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Penobscot, and a drake and four ducks just below the dam on the 25th (Weston). Fall. The birds start moving westward in October (a few in very late September), their numbers increasing until late November when migration usually ceases. Breeding and summer. This polygamous species tends to nest in colo- nies. The duck makes a hollow in the ground out in the open or in a sheltered spot such as under a ledge or fallen tree, at the base of a stand- ing tree, in a conifer thicket, or in a tangle of raspberry bushes. Some- times an old gull nest is used. Grass, seaweed, or other vegetation is placed in the cavity, the lining of down being added during the latter part of laying and during incubation. Although much higher numbers have been reported elsewhere, in Maine four to six eggs are laid, usually from late April to early June. Incubation takes 28 days, during which the duck leaves the nest infrequently and for short periods only. The many known Maine hatching dates range from June 3 to July 5, with most from June 7 to 16. Ducklings, able to dive readily when very young, are rather independent of the parent, and tend to associate with any female eider, so that up to 12 or 15 young of varying ages may be seen in the company of one duck. The fledging period is unknown. One brood is raised yearly. After the nesting site is selected, the drake takes no part in nesting activities or rearing of the young. When nesting singly, or with only a few pairs, the drake may remain in the general vicinity. (Breeding data summarized from Gross, 1938a, 1944b, with numerous additions.) For the past ten years, Cruickshank has noted flocks of eiders in Muscongus Bay all summer. Sometimes these total a thousand birds, as in June, 1942. Most of the birds are drakes, many of them probably mates of the ducks nesting in Penobscot and Jericho Bay colonies. Since 1940, various observers have reported seeing flocks, sometimes containing as many as 200 birds, summering as far westward as Sequin. These probably consist mainly of immature birds. Winter. The center of abundance of wintering birds is from Damaris- cove Island off Boothbay Harbor, Lincoln County, east to Petit Manan Point in Washington County. Probably over 80,000 winter in this section, with a combined total of about 20,000 for east and west of these points. There is much shifting about of flocks throughout this season. The winter habits and abundance of this species have been little known by ornithologists, who have generally regarded these ducks as less numerous than they actually are. Ecology. For nesting, these birds seek islands, either wooded or tree- less, which are uninhabited by man. Norton (1923a: 17-19) described the daily flights, of wintering birds, in from sea, where they pass the PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 119 night, to feeding places (mussel beds), showing that the distance trav- eled sometimes may be as much as nine miles. "In feeding they congregate on a lee shore, where they drift oft' after having fed sufficiently, preening, bathing, and drifting until impelled to feed again. Then they swim up to the diving place, in 10 to 30 feet of water just beyond the breakers, while others are at the same time drifting away, so that the flock revolves over the diving place in an endless chain. When darkness begins to close in, those able to fly pro- ceed to wing their way far out over the open sea while those too heavily gorged to fly swim after the flying flocks" (Norton, notes). This duck nests in rather close association with Leach's Petrel and with two of its predators, the Herring and the Black-backed Gull. It is markedly gregarious and social at other seasons, its flocks often joined by Northern and King Eiders, scoters, and even mergansers and loons. Remarks. Formerly, the American Eider fed along the entire surf line of the mainland and even up the mouth of the Kennebec River for about five miles to Weasel Rocks. The breeding range in the 1830's and 1840's extended westward to the Egg Rocks and Shark Rock in Muscongus Bay. The birds and their eggs were in too great demand, however, for such a situation to continue. With drakes weighing six pounds, and ducks five, almost always in good flesh, and four to five birds yielding a pound of feathers, this eider was prized by gunners over any other seafowl. Their eggs also were preferred for the table. Widespread use of the percussion-cap gun, after the Civil War, drove the eider to less accessible islands and ledges. With the rise of winter lobstering about 1880, the species was driven farther out to the more distant shoals and ledges. Nearly all the fishing boats carried guns and, when a flock was found 'bedded' at a ledge, a single morning devoted to shooting was a profitable day's work for the men aboard. A hundred birds was not an exceptional bag for two gunners in a morning. By 1904, the breeding population had reached its lowest point. Per- haps only four adults, at Old Man Island, off Cutler in Washington County, and a few elsewhere were known of in the state (Norton in Dutcher, 1905a: 92). In 1905, the National Audubon Society leased Old Man Island (Norton, 1905c: 78), and in 1907, Norton (1907d: 326) saw seven ducks and one young drake there, with three adult drakes not far away. As for the wintering population at this time, the coming of the relatively fast motor boat and the great increase in numbers of fishermen forced the birds to yield further their haunts and resort to the outermost shoals, feeding in three to five fathoms of water. Although given widespread protection the year round for a period of years later, recovery of the breeding population was not rapid. In 1921, 120 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Norton (1921 : 356) wrote that the western movement of the Herring Gull had given "confidence and encouragement to the Eider Duck to linger at long-abandoned places formerly occupied by these two species." The wintering population began reoccupying the outer ledges and, gradually, many of the inner ones within the larger bays, so that by 1924, they were again 'bedding' in numbers in such waters as Casco and Saco Bays. In the summer of 1931, Norton and Allen (1931 : 591) found 25 broods and 27 nests along the eastern coast, and by 1943, Gross (1944b: 17-18) had found nests on 31 islands and esti- mated that the nesting population probably exceeded 2,000 pairs. Localities included offshore No Mans Land in the Matinicus group, and Mark Island in Casco Bay where a nest with four eggs was found on June 14, 1943. For number of individuals occurring per year, the American Eider is now third duck in abundance in the state, perhaps being nearly as numerous as the Oldsquaw. The Muscongus Bay record is for a female and two young seen on August 7, 1946, on Franklin Island (Cruickshank). Inland records (besides those under Spring) are for three birds shot on unknown date in the fall of 1918 at Merrymeeting Bay, one of which was seen in the flesh by Spinney, and a drake seen on April 17, 1944, just below the Bangor-Brewer dam (Weston). On August 23, 1936, Norton timed eight submergences in unknown depth of water at Kent's Island, New Brunswick, finding a range of 10 to 30 seconds, with an average of 19. Although the first unquestionable Maine record for this duck is by Wilson (1814: 122), who reported it breeding, probably the great ducks mentioned by Rosier (1605) referred to this species. When reading Knight's various writings on this bird, one should allow for the fact that he usually made no distinction between Jericho and Penobscot Bays, referring to both under the latter name. King Eider Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) Winter resident, uncommon but probably regular on salt water; two summer records. Rare inland. Migrations. Fall records are usually for November, with these two exceptions: a duck and two young drakes shot between October 10 and 14, 1941, at Baileys Island in western Casco Bay (E. Sinnett), and a duck shot there by Sinnett on October 22, 1909, which is now in the collection of the Portland Society of Natural History. The latest spring PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 121 records are: a young male and female shot on April 20, 1894, near Vinalhaven, Knox County (H. A. Arey); one shot on April 20, 1902, at Baileys Island (J. Lord); an immature duek shot on April 20, 1909, in Casco Bay (Norton); an immature bird shot on May 1, 1898, at Seguin Ledges (Spinney); and an occurrence on May 29 of unstated year and place (G. M. Allen, 1909: 44). Flight year. In the winter of 1875-76, a "good many," none fully adult, were brought to Cumberland County taxidermists (N. C. Brown) . Winter. This species has been noted at points along the coast west to the edge of York County. Summer. A young drake and three ducks were seen (the drake shot) on June 13, 1918, and a single female seen the next day, some 70 miles inland at Duck Lake, Lakeville, Penobscot County (Kennard, 1923). On June 15, 1938, three drakes were observed carefully near Shark Rock in Muscongus Bay (Cruickshank and others). Ecology. This species sometimes feeds in deeper water than the American Eider, as mentioned by Norton (1900: 18) for the vicinity of Big Green Island, Knox County. It also appears in such unexpected places as along sheltered shores, in creek mouths, and even inland. Occasionally, small groups are found to be composed of King Eiders only, but usually this bird associates with American Eiders. There is one record of a single bird associating with a mixed flock of scoters in Casco Bay. Remarks. Inland records, besides the Duck Lake one cited above, are: a duck shot on November 15, 1926, at Merrymeeting Bay (Norton) ; and another shot in the fall, about 1936, at Holbrook's Pond in Eddington, Penobscot County (Mrs. F. H. Eckstorm). Three birds shot in April, 1899, at Big Green Island, had eaten young holothurians (Pentada frondosa) (Norton, 1900: 18). "A King Eider, shot at Scarborough, during the winter of 1907-08, had its gullet filled with large specimens of Gammarus locusta, the common sea flea of our shores. Another taken in 1908 was similarly filled with young crabs (Cancer irroratus), in both instances to the exclusion of other food" (Norton, 1909f : 439). Knight (1908b: 111) reported finding mussels the chief food item of the few birds he examined. Legendary, and undoubtedly erroneous, reference to breeding along the New England coast was made by Audubon (1835: 523). W. S. Brooks (1913: 108), citing Norton, was not entirely correct in stating that this bird "feeds largely" on holothurians, since Norton had only one record of three birds doing this, as stated above. 122 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Eastern White-winged Scoter Melanitta fusca deglandi (Bonaparte) Transient, abundant in late fall and spring coastwise, and uncommon but regular in late spring, with more numbers in fall, on large bodies of water inland; winter resident, common to numerous on salt water; non-breeding summer resident, common on salt water and rare inland. May have bred formerly. Spring. Beginning about April 6, large numbers gather at favorite feeding places, and the population increases until about May 20. On April 16, 1923, thousands were gathered in Jericho Bay (Norton). Most birds depart the last ten days in May, the majority of the flocks going inland before reaching Washington County waters. A few birds stop briefly at inland points in the state. Migration ends about June 7. Fall. Most migrants are noted from September through October, adult birds arriving first, and, generally after October 14, the young of the year. Migration in the interior, to the coast, continues into early November. Generally speaking, this scoter is the earliest of the three to arrive on salt water in numbers. Summer. The summering flocks of scoters on salt water are mostly of this species and probably consist mainly of first-year birds. The records for inland lakes at this season are for single birds or very small numbers. Winter. Flocks, of usually less than 40 birds, occur regularly at suitable feeding places all along the coast. Ecology. This bird is not quite as marine as the eiders. The flocks move shoreward to feed by day. They feed in moderate depths of water, about 8 to 20 feet, chiefly on mussels, but also such shellfish as quahogs, periwinkles, and small crabs (Norton). Common associ- ates are other scoters, and occasionally eiders are seen with them. Remarks. From about 1860 to 1916, this species declined steadily from over-shooting, but in recent decades apparently has recovered considerably in numbers. All the scoters are somewhat unwary, the present species being the least shy and noisy of the three. Gunners often kill large numbers in a morning's shooting over decoys. The account of hunting by Spinney (1897), reprinted in Knight (1908b: 113-117), is a valuable contribution to the literature on these birds. A drake, shot on May 9, 1888, near Portland, was white except for gray markings on head, neck, and upper tail coverts (Webster, 1888). Audubon (1835: 356) wrote that this duck bred on Grand Manan, New Brunswick, and rarely farther south. In 1929, E. B. Sawyer of Jonesport wrote Norton that, from "a reliable source," he had learned of a 'White-winged Coot' raising its young in 1928 at The Brothers Islands, off Roque Bluffs, Washington County. palmer: maine birds 123 Surf Scoter Melar.itta perspicillata (Linnaeus) Transient, common to numerous in late spring and more numerous in fall on salt water and at Merrymeeting Bay, and uncommon inland; winter resident, uncommon on salt water; non-breeding summer resident, uncommon on salt water. One possible breeding record. Spring. Transients first appear in numbers about April 15 to 18, over a week later than the White-winged Scoters. Departure is in the latter half of May, the flocks going overland, with a few birds lingering until the first week in June. Fall. Whereas there are records of transients for as early as Sep- tember 15, most birds arrive from October 5 to 30 and depart by November 12. The peak of the flight is later than that of the preceding species. Summer. Small numbers, usually two or three identified, occur in mixed flocks of summering scoters. Norton's notes contain mention of several "sizeable flocks" in July and August, but not for recent years. Throughout June, 1941, however, over 100 of these scoters were seen in Muscongus Bay (Cruickshank). On June 25, 1896, two birds were seen at offshore Seal Island in the Matinicus group, and Norton secured one of these for his collection. Winter. As in summer, this bird occurs in mixed flocks of scoters. Twenty or 30 is a fair-sized number to see at any one place, and twice as many is unusual. Over 100 were seen in January, 1945, in Casco Bay (C. Packard). Ecology. This species is found in the same places as the White- winged Scoter, with which it associates. Remarks. From incomplete data at hand, it appears that this bird once was nearly as abundant as the White-winged Scoter. Now it is relatively scarce. Grouping together the spring and fall transients, the ratio in numbers of the three species is, perhaps: 100 or more White-winged Scoters to 20 American to 10 or less Surf Scoters. A partial albino, having black eyes, was shot on October 13, 1884, at Boon Island, York County (Merriam, 1885). Rackliff shot two partial albinos in Knox County about 1893 (Norton). Norton timed three submergences in unstated depth of water at Pine Point, Scarborough, in October, and found them to be 21, 26, and 27 seconds. American Common Scoter Oidemia nigra americana (Swainson) Transient, numerous to abundant in spring and fall on salt water, and common to numerous in fall on larger bodies of inland waters; 124 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology winter resident, uncommon but regular on salt water; non-breeding summer resident, uncommon but regular on salt water. Spring. This is the earliest of the scoters to arrive, numbers some- times appearing by very early April and the peak of the flight pre- ceding that of the White-winged Scoter. Most have departed by May 12, with some flocks of transients lingering until the end of the month, though rarely after May 24. This scoter is "never seen in the spring at Merrymeeting Bay" (Walch, 1926: 14). Fall. Some migrants are noted as early as the first week in Septem- ber. The peak of the flight occurs in early October, and arrivals con- tinue until the middle of November. In proportion to its numbers, more stop on fresh water at this season than White-winged Scoters. At Lake Umbagog, sizeable flocks have been seen, chiefly in October, as discussed at length by Brewster (1924: 169-180), and at Lake Auburn, Androscoggin County, a flock of about 100 was seen on October 15, 1899 (E. Johnson, 1900a: 9). Summer. A few birds of this species often are found in summering flocks of White-winged Scoters. It is unusual to see over 30 at one place, but Cruickshank saw over 100 throughout June, 1941,inMus- congus Bay. Winter. The wintering population is about the same in numbers as the summering one. Ecology. This bird is found in the same places as the White-winged Scoter, with which it and the Surf Scoter associate, especially in sum- mer and winter. Remarks. Comparative numbers have been discussed under the preceding species. Data indicate that this species never was as numerous in Maine, in the last 100 years, as the White-winged Scoter. "Along the coast they obtain their living by diving, feeding on mussels, clams and other mollusks; inland on the ponds they likewise prefer Unios" (Knight, 1908b: 111-112). At Umbagog this bird is called the Sleigh-bell Duck, from its musical note (Brewster, 1924: 171). This melodious whistling, which is not peculiar to this species of scoter, is a characteristic sound heard above the noise of the surf along our bleak winter shores. In their Mt. Desert Island list, Tyson and Bond (1941 : 55) wrote that this species was "said to have once nested on Green Nubble (Gott)." Bond recently (1947) wrote me that he considers this report unreliable. palmer: maine birds 125 Northern Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis rubida (Wilson) Transient, one recent spring record and regularly uncommon in fall on fresh, brackish, and salt water; non-breeding summer resident, rare on fresh water. Spring. Although Knight (1908b: 118) gave April and May as the time for spring migration in Maine, the only recent record is for a bird seen by Weston on March 27, 1942, at Cambridge, Somerset County. Fall. Most records are for early October to about November 10. The two earliest are for a bird shot on August 25, 1919, at Merry- meeting Bay (Walch, 192(3: 14), and a flock of six (one shot) on September 12, 1929, on the Androscoggin River above Brunswick, Cumberland County (Palmer). The latest record is for a bird captured on November 15 of unstated year (Norton). Flight years. On October 12, 1905, "large numbers" arrived at Merrymeeting Bay, "hundreds" being shot (Noble, 1905d: 65). They were more numerous than usual in autumn in 1942 and 1944 at Merrymeeting Bay, two flocks totaling about 60 birds being seen on October 26 of the latter year (Mendall). Summer. In 1941 and 1942, Mendall saw several birds each summer on the Penobscot River, and at Pemadumcook Lake in Piscataquis County. A female was observed August 9 to 16, 1947, at Jackman, Somerset County, and photographed at close range (W. Foerster). Ecology. This duck occurs on fresh or brackish water, usually where there is much submerged vegetation, and less often on salt water. Ordinarily it does not associate with other ducks. Remarks. Until about 1896, this duck was a common fall transient throughout the interior, but rather rare in spring. By 1918, it had decreased considerably, and, by the early 1920's, had reached the present low level. There has been no sign of recovery. Walch (1926: 14) was writing of past history when he reported the species common at Merrymeeting Bay for 30 days in fall. Records of the largest bags in the present century, except for the flight year of 1905, are for 11 shot in the fall of 1902 in Cumberland County by Rogers, and 15 shot, all on October 15, 1909, by members of the Great Pond Club at Cape Elizabeth (Norton). Boardman (1862: 130) gave the status of this duck in the Calais region as "Winter. Rare." Whereas this has been quoted widely by later authors, the fact that Boardman omitted mention of winter occurrence in later writings indicates that it was an error. 126 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Hooded Merganser Lophodytes cucullatus (Linnaeus) Summer resident, rather common in unsettled parts of Oxford, Franklin, Somerset, Piscataquis, Aroostook, Penobscot, and Washing- ton Counties, and perhaps in northern Hancock where it is seen occasionally; transient, common to numerous in spring and fall on fresh and very sheltered salt water; three early winter records. Spring. Birds begin arriving on the coast in the latter part of March. Earliest records are for a bird seen on March 21, 1894, and a female shot on March 22, 1901, near Portland (Norton). They leave for inland points as soon as there is open water, most birds departing by April 17, with stragglers to May 7. The earliest arrival date at Presque Isle is April 11, 1941 (Chamberlain). An unusual occurrence was that of two flocks seen on the late date of May 21, 1876, at Scarborough (Smith). Fall. Most migrants are seen from October 10 to November 17. An early salt water record is for a pair shot by Pillsbury on September 16, 1925, at Scarborough. The last birds to leave fresh water are driven out by ice. Breeding and summer. This merganser nests in holes, at varying heights, in trees and stubs near or standing in water. The cavity is lined with down. Five to eight eggs are normal, with up to 18 recorded (? laid by two females), and probably are laid throughout May and into early June. Brewster's earliest "full clutch" at Umbagog was taken on May 25 of unstated year (J. C. Phillips, 1926: 251). Outside of Maine, incubation has been given as 31 days ( W. Evans in Forbush, 1925: 188), but probably is less than that. Although Brewster (1924: 87) saw a female with six small young on June 11, 1880, young usually are not seen until the latter half of that month. The manner in which the young leave the nest is not understood fully, and the fledging period apparently is unrecorded. One brood is raised yearly. Weston has seen this species in summer in central Hancock County. Winter. There are three early records as follows: one seen on De- cember 8, 1902, in the Presumpscott River at Windham, Cumberland County (Norton); six seen on December 21, 1938, in the Wiscasset region, Lincoln County (D., L., and J. Washington, 1939); and three seen on December 22, 1937, in the same region (D. and L. Washington, 1938). Ecology. In spring the females seek hollow trees near inland streams, ponds, and lakes. Undoubtedly the distribution of the nesting popu- lation is influenced greatly by availability of sites, these also being sought by Goldeneyes and Wood Ducks. On salt water and the larger PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 127 bodies of fresh water, these mergansers resort to the most sheltered areas of coves and the like. Usually they do not associate with other wildfowl. Remarks. In the 1870's and earlier, this species was a common to numerous breeder inland, and abundant in migrations. Brewster, who visited Umbagog from 1871 to 1909, gave a graphic picture (1924: 83-84) of the great decrease in that region. Chiefly because of shooting, numbers had declined greatly by the late 1880's, and thereafter, from shooting and, he surmised, "other and more obscure causes," the decrease continued until the bird was "well-nigh locally extinct" by the time his visits to the area ceased. This decline was paralleled roughly throughout the state in the same period. The low point was reached some time in the decade of 1910-1920. After the early 1920's a very slow increase began, and even though this has accelerated noticeably since the middle 1930's, the birds have recovered only a fraction of their former numbers. In the case of the nesting population, this increase appears to be more local than general. Brewster (ibid. 89-90) reported flushing two females, one right after the other, out of a tree cavity at Umbagog; he also pointed out that females consort together in the breeding season and probably lay in each other's nests. Because of the competition for nesting sites between this species and the American Goldeneye and Wood Duck, mixed sets of eggs are found occasionally, with the Hooded Merganser-American Goldeneye combination more common (also see reference, under American Goldeneye, for a hybrid between these two birds). Brewster (ibid. 85-86) found no evidence of the Hooded Merganser eating fish at Umbagog. He saw them pulling up, and apparently devouring, the roots and stems of various water plants, and found vegetation in the stomachs of the birds he examined. Aquatic insects also were found. Most of the food obtained apparently was secured in water less than six feet deep. American Merganser Mergus merganser americanus Cassin Resident (locally migrant), breeding occasionally in settled areas and rather commonly in unsettled areas from northern Cumberland County throughout, and in winter, common to numerous (locally) on open rapids in streams and rivers and rather uncommon on fairly sheltered salt water; transient, common to numerous in spring and fall through- out. Spring. Migrants are noted from about March 14 to April 22, the birds arriving at the larger bodies of water as soon as these are partly 128 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology cleared of ice. For exposed salt water about islands several miles from the mainland, there are more spring records, single birds or pairs, than for any other season. Chamberlain's earliest arrival date for Presque Isle is March 18. Fall. Migration begins about October 10 and continues through November, the last birds being forced to move by ice. The peak of the flight occurs early in November, being later than that of the Red- breasted Merganser. Breeding. This species nests in cavities, at any height, in trees near water, and occasionally in holes in banks or piles of rocks or boulders, and the same site is used year after year. A female, apparently search- ing for a nesting site, came down a chimney into a cabin at Jackman, Somerset County, in June, 1944 (Mrs. W. Foerster). The nest is lined with clown. Eight to 12 eggs are usual, but up to 19 (? laid by two birds) are reported. In Maine, first clutches are completed from May 12 to 25. Actual dates are: 11 eggs with small embryos, May 19, 1881, at Richardson Lake, Franklin County (Brewster, 1924: 78-79); nine eggs in late May, 1899, on Songo River, a tributary of Sebago Lake, Cumberland County (F. Shaw) ; and 10 "nearly fresh" eggs on June 19, 1881, at Moosehead Lake (Sage, 1881 : 51). Outside the state, incuba- tion is reported variably as requiring 32 to 35 days. The drake leaves the duck when incubation begins. The young may remain in the nest two or three days, then, on signal from the duck, climb to the entrance and drop to the ground. Many young broods in August indicate that a second clutch is laid if the first is destroyed. To find unfledged young in mid-September is a common event. The fledging period is unknown. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. Usually a few birds are found on salt water, and flocks of varying size are found on rapids in any sizeable stream where they are not molested. At the Bangor Salmon Pool, on the Penobscot, the number varies from year to year from about 40 to 200 birds in Febru- ary. In the winter of 1938-39, they were very scarce there, undoubtedly because the Pool was nearly covered with ice for about ten days in December (Mendall). Ecology. In late spring the females seek hollow trees and cavities in the ground for nesting sites, the availability of these being a major factor in the distribution of breeding birds. This species fishes by day, in shallow water to about 12 feet in depth, and usually is seen close to shore or the edge of ice, depending on the season. It is equally adept in calm water, rapid currents, and eddies. Several birds fish together, leaping partly out of the water to begin the plunge downward, and often swimming rapidly for many yards before emerging. Seldom are more than a dozen seen together, except during the fall migration or PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 129 when numbers are forced to concentrate at restricted feeding places in winter. When not feeding, they often perch on ice or rocks and preen. On the Allagash River, in the summer of 1941, they seemed to have favorite perching rocks in the stream, for these were well whitewashed by their droppings. This bird associates regularly with the Red-breasted Merganser and occasionally in winter with the American Goldeneye. Remarks. This sheldrake formerly was "one of the most abundant summer residents" in the lakes of northern Maine, as stated by Samuels (1867:528). Sage (1881:51) reported it to be the most common of the Anatidae at Moosehead Lake in the early summer of 1881. There was a decline in numbers during the next four or five decades. At present, having increased for perhaps the last decade, there is a fairly sizeable population, but the species is decidedly less plentiful than it was 60 or 80 years ago. In other parts of its range, this bird is known to eat trout and salmon eggs. For Maine, Knight (1908b: 78) wrote: "The adult birds feed on fish exclusively while inland as far as I have been able to ascertain, preferably on the various species of so called minnows and chubs, though by no means disdaining salmon fry and trout when these are obtainable. Along the coast in winter they eat many mussels and allied species of mollusks, swallowing them shell and all. The shells are soon ground to pieces in their intestines and stomachs, and in dead birds dissected out I have traced the entire process from en- tire mussel shells down to impalpable mud at the lower end of the intestinal tract." Of these mergansers at Umbagog, Brewster (1924: 69) wrote: "Most of the local gunners slay it ruthlessly, whenever opportunity offers, believing it to be a wholesale destroyer of Trout and young Salmon. . . According to my observation it preys almost ex- clusively on Pickerel and Minnows in the Lake; on Chub, Dace, and Minnows in swift-flowing streams. What if it does take a few fishes valuable for human food? Most of these are cannibals and among the worst enemies of their own kind, the larger devouring the smaller in countless numbers." On February 19, 1940, Norton timed six submergences by two females in three to four feet of water at Back Cove, Portland, finding a range of 12 to 223^2 seconds with an average of 18. At the Bangor Salmon Pool, Weston saw a partially albinistic female, having a very light reddish crest, light buff primaries and secondaries, and the rest of the plumage a dirty white. He saw it there from February 13 to March 23, 1944, and presumably the same bird again from February 13 to March 10, 1946. When flushed, these birds often defecate before taking wing, and on 130 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology several such occasions, I have noted many tapeworms in the fecal matter. Brewster (1924: 77) told of a gunner shooting one of these birds, on the Androscoggin River, that vomited up a live pickerel. This suggested to Brewster the possibility that, since "the Goosander habitually carries fishes of various kinds in its gullet, it must fly with them rather frequently over dams, falls, and stretches of dry land, and may occasionally drop them, while still alive and essentially un- injured, in waters untenanted by their kind." Williamson (1832: 148) gave "Water Raven" as a vernacular generic name for the two large sheldrakes in Maine. Mention by Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 80) of "a great black and white Duck," that frequented rivers and ponds, is the earliest Maine record for the American Merganser. Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator Linnaeus Resident (locally migrant), breeding rather commonly on islands westward into Penobscot Bay, uncommonly from there into Casco, and occasionally at secluded lakes and larger ponds island, with a few non-breeders seen along the coast, and in winter, very common chiefly on salt water; transient, numerous in spring and abundant in fall on salt water and rather common in spring and rather numerous in fall inland. Spring. Migration extends from March 21 to May 24, most birds arriving on salt water the first ten days in April. The later flocks ap- pear to be composed largely of females. Fall. Migration begins the last week in September, is most pro- nounced the last half of October, and continues to the end of Novem- ber. Breeding and summer. The ground nest, sometimes a short distance from water, is placed beneath an overhanging bank, boulders, plants, bushes, or a stump. Some plant material is placed in the cavity and a lining of down added. Although six to 12 eggs are usual, Hardy (1899a) reported finding 16 in one nest at an unstated Maine locality. Clutches probably are completed from May 20 to June 15, which is later than for the American Merganser. Knight (1895a) found ten eggs on June 21, 1894, at Saddleback Ledge, west of Isle au Haut. Outside of Maine, incubation is reported variably as 26 to 30 days, probably being nearer the latter figure. The fledging period appears to be unrecorded. One brood is raised yearly. Hardy (1899a) wrote: "If their eggs are taken they will lay a second time, and I have good reason to believe even a third time. I have one PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 131 mounted which is in the down, which I took August 20, 1888, at Caucomogomoc Lake [Piscataquis County]. There were six in the brood to which this belonged, and I saw another brood of four only a few days old. On speaking of this to a hunter of my acquaintance, and expressing surprise at birds being in the down so late, he said: 'Oh ! I can tell you all about that. I was hunting bears up there, and I robbed all the nests there twice to get the eggs to eat, and the broods you saw were a third brood from eggs laid after I left.' As the ice begins to form there the last of September, it seems hardly possible that these birds could . . . [attain flight before the lake] froze." The non-breeding birds seen along the coast at this season usually are solitary females. Winter. These mergansers are seen regularly on salt water as far out as the Matinicus Islands, although not reported from there in the size- able flocks occasionally seen inshore. Unusually large numbers re- mained along the coast in the winter of 1940-41 (Gross; Weston). On February 18, 1943, Weston saw an estimated 300 birds at the Bangor Salmon Pool on the Penobscot — a large number for that place. Ecology. Hardy (1899a) reported that, as far as he had observed inland, this species always nested on low, ledgy islands. The same preference, plus some degree of remoteness from woods, holds for the salt water breeding birds. Inland, this bird frequents more open water than the American Merganser, and on salt water, it is far more marine, probably feeding in deeper water. On salt water this species moves away from land in the evening and returns shoreward to feeding places after dawn. When feeding, a flock does not linger about points or ledges but travels along, strung out in a line and moving forward con- stantly. Of the two large mergansers, the Red-breasted is the least shy; it is also more gregarious and social than the American. The young of the two species often join in flocks in fall. Adults of the present species associate, in migration and winter, with Goldeneyes and even Old- squaws and various scoters. Remarks. This species is much less numerous than it was 60 or 80 years ago. The breeding population appears not to have changed noticeably in the past decade. For the 13 years, 1842 to 1854, Rogers shot 120 of these birds at Scarborough; for the 21 years, 1891 to 1912, Pillsbury shot 248 there. Relatively few of the other mergansers are killed at this tidewater locality. Norton's notes give weights of adult males as 34 to 41 ounces, and of females as 24 to 30; four submergences in water under six feet in depth, near Portland in winter, ranged from 18 to 24 seconds with an average of 20}^. 132 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Occurrence of "Sheldrakes" in the Gulf of Maine in summer was mentioned by Capt. John Smith (1616:47; 1865:47), which is 58 years earlier than Josselyn's (1674; 1865b: 80) mention of them within Maine's present boundaries. Family CATHARTIDAE Eastern Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura septentrionalis Wied Rare visitant, March 15 to late December, chiefly in coastal counties. Records. All records are: one taken in the Calais region prior to 1862 (Boardman, 1862: 122); two seen (one taken) about November 1, 1874, in Standish, Cumberland County (N. C. Brown, 1874; Roamer, 1874); one taken about December 31, 1876, at Buxton, York County (N. C. Brown, 1882f: 23); one taken March 15, 1883, at Denmark, Oxford County (Norton, 1911b: 263); one seen [prior to April, 1897] near Bangor by Hardy (Knight, 1897d: 57); two caught in bear traps at unstated localities on unrecorded dates, on authority of Hardy, and one seen August 5, 1904, at Scarborough (Deane, 1905) ; a female taken on August 27, 1910, at Cape Elizabeth (Norton, 1911b: 263) ; one taken about August 1, 1916, west of Bingham, Somerset County (Forbush, 1927: 89); one, apparently disabled, seen about 1931, at Bar Harbor, Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941: 56); an injured bird cap- tured alive on July 3, 1940, at Jackman, Somerset County, and released five days later (Eckstorm); two seen in August, 1940, near Bangor (Tyson and Bond, ibid.); and one seen on April 14, 1944, at Gorham, Cumberland County, and reported to Haven by G. L. Wilson. Remarks. There was confusion regarding dates and localities for the earlier records, but Norton (1911b) straightened out those that were reasonably definite, and they are given correctly above. Early mention of "Turkie Buzzard" by Josselyn (1672; 1865a: 46) probably referred to young Bald Eagles. He said the bird was as big as a turkey, brown in color, and very good to eat. Pettingill (1939a: 329) gave two records for nearby Grand Manan, New Brunswick. Black Vulture Coragyps atratus (Meyer) Rare visitant, chiefly in early fall in coastal counties. Records. All records are : two specimens from Calais or vicinity, one [about 1868] (Boardman, 1869c), and the other probably in 1892, on PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 133 authority of Boardman (I)utcher, 1893); one taken on September 25, 1897, at Whitefield, Lincoln County (Powers, 1897j); one taken, on unknown date, at Eliot, York County (Knight, 1898c); one captured alive on August 20, 1901, near Dover, Piscataquis County (Dean, 1901 ; Knight, 1908b: 215); a male shot on August 26, 1904, at Lubec, Washington County (Clark, 1905a); a male shot on July 6, 1909, at offshore Monhegan (Maynard, 1909: 119); one seen on July 11, 1915, at Scarborough (Norton, 1916: 381); one shot at Springfield, Penob- scot County, prior to April, 1939 (Bond); and one shot on October 21 or 28, 1941, at Milo, Penobscot County, and examined by Eckstorm. Remarks. Griscom (1942: 122) mentioned a specimen taken "in Maine" in 1941, which undoubtedly was the bird examined by Eck- storm at Milo. The early records were discussed by Norton (1916:381-382); he pointed out, among other things, that Boardman's statement (in Dutcher, 1893: 82) of knowing of six occurrences, included Maine and the New Brunswick mainland and islands of Campobello and Grand Manan. Of these, the Campobello specimen was cited erroneously by Knight (1908b: 215) as having been taken at Eastport, Maine. Norton (1916:382) stated that Boardman secured a specimen at Calais in 1875, but a check of the original sources shows that they actually refer to the bird taken about 1868. Family ACCIPITRIDAE Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus (Linnaeus) Erroneous report. Grinnell (1883) reported this species as taken in Maine, but quickly (1884) corrected the error. Eastern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis atricapillus (Linnaeus) Resident (locally migrant), regularly uncommon throughout much of the interior of the state, and perhaps also on larger inshore islands. Subject to incursions. Spring. When there is a marked migration or incursion, the north- ward movement takes place from late March to May 1, as indicated by more records for that period in southwestern coastal areas. Fall. Southward movements occur from about October 20 (rarely October 1) through November. 134 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Incursions. Unfortunately, incursions of this species have received far less attention and recording than have those of the Snowy Owl. In the following data on Maine incursions, those accredited to Mendall are based on his studies of the records of Walter Clayton, former taxidermist at Lincoln, Penobscot County. Two large incursions, recorded elsewhere in New England, un- doubtedly included Maine in their scope. These were in the winters of 1859-60 in Massachusetts (Howe and Allen, 1901: 62), and 1870-71 in Rhode Island (Deane, 1907a: 183). The following were recorded for Maine: 1896-97, large (Powers, 1897b; Deane, 1907a: 182); 1905- 06, large (Deane, ibid.); 1906-07, large (ibid. 182-184; Hardy, 1907; and others); 1908-09, noticeable (Brownson, 1908c: 120; Clark, 1909b) ; 1917-18, large (Norton, and others); 1921-22 and 1925-26 (Mendall), comparative size unrecorded; 1926-27, largest recorded (Gross, 1928b: 8; and others); and, 1936-37, noticeable (Norton, and others). Breeding. The nest, at varying heights in a coniferous or deciduous tree (usually the latter), is composed of sticks and lined with twigs, grass, or bark. Hardy (in Bendire, 1892: 197-198) wrote: "There is both an old and new nest of this species on my own land [at Brewer]. The first about 140 yards from a blacksmith's shop. These are the only two I ever heard of having been found in this vicinity. I think they occupied the first nest at least six or eight years, as ten or twelve adults and young were shot in the near vicinity ; but so shy were they that no one ever suspected their nesting until the nest was accidentally found. A female was shot from it in 1877, and another in 1878. They then deserted the locality, and I have recently found where they re- built. The nesting sites were in both instances in white birches, about 20 feet from the ground. A very small young one was taken from the last nest June 5, 1887. They probably commence laying here about May 1." Usually three or four eggs make a clutch. For Oxford County, Carpenter (1884a: 9) gave April 25, of unstated year, for a clutch of four. Other dates are : three eggs, slightly incubated, on April 27, 1941, in inland Hancock County (Harris) ; two eggs, incubated about a week, on April 29, 1938, and three, slightly incubated, on May 3, 1939, at Holden, Penobscot County (Eckstorm). A nest with downy young was found on June 2, 1937, on Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941: 56), and three young, able to fly but still near the nest, were found on July 15, 1940, at Greenfield, Penobscot County (Weston). The incubation period probably is four weeks, according to Bendire (1892: 198). Fledging probably requires about six weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. At this season, there is local wandering of the native popu- lation. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 135 Ecology. This is a bird of forests, perhaps showing some preference for mixed woods, at least in Maine. Remarks. Of these birds, Hardy (1907) wrote: "They are both the shyest and boldest of our hawks. It is almost impossible to creep to one when he is on the watch, yet they will dash into a dooryard and kill a hen, caring nothing how many people are close by. I have known one to dash through an open door into a house in pursuit of a hen which took refuge there in trying to escape. As fair examples of their boldness, lately one came right into the middle of our city [Bangor] and took a dove from the sidewalk within a few feet of a house, and another took a hen in a dooryard and allowed himself to be taken in the hands of the woman who owned the hen; he put up a strong fight before he was killed. A few days ago one was brought to me which killed two large Plymouth Rock hens before a gun could be brought. In this, as in many cases, the bird was killing more than he needed just for the sport of killing. I have known one to kill five Ruffed Grouse and tear them in pieces, leaving them uneaten." Although Hardy may have overstated the 'killing for sport' aspect, it is true that the grouse population suffers heavily during a Goshawk invasion. Of 139 Goshawk stomachs which contained food, Gross (1928b: 10) found frequency of occurrence as follows : poultry, 82 ; Ruffed Grouse, 25; Cottontail, 19; Red Squirrel, 8; and Pheasant, 3. He also found smaller quantities of 11 other bird and mammal items. Although it was not stated in his report, almost all the stomachs examined by Gross were obtained from Connecticut. Mendall (1944: 199) listed frequency of occurrence in 31 stomachs as follows: poultry, 14; Red Squirrel, 7; Ruffed Grouse, 5; Snowshoe Hare, 2; mice, 2; Woodcock, 1 ; Black Duck, 1; and unidentified birds, 3. These stomachs were from birds taken within about 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, over a period of years in all months except February and May. On October 27, 1945, at Ellsworth, Hancock County, a young Goshawk struck one of Weston's cork duck decoys and retained its grip on the Victim' for some time. Northern Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus veloz (Wilson) Summer resident, rather common throughout except on islands, where only occasional on the larger inshore ones; transient, common in spring and fall; occasional winter resident. 136 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Spring. Migration extends from March 16 to May 8, with most birds seen from March 30 to April 16. This hawk arrives at Presque Isle from April 7 to 15 (Chamberlain). Fall. This flight lasts from late August to November 23 or perhaps later. Largest numbers are seen September 4 to 18, chiefly along the coast and even out to offshore Monhegan. On the early date of August 17, 1895, at least 150 were seen flying southward at Jackman, Somerset County (Knight, 1896c: 177). Breeding. "The nest is usually situated in a spruce, fir or hemlock tree, occasionally in one of the hard wood trees or even in a hole in a tree. The nests in trees are situated on horizontal limbs, composed of sticks and twigs, hemlock bark, cedar bark and similar material. Many nests are not lined, others are lined with fine cedar bark, grass, green hemlock twigs, pine needles and occasionally poplar leaves" (Knight, 1908b: 221). Usually four or five eggs are laid, probably in late May or early June. A set of five eggs was taken on June 1, 1892, at Stockton Springs, Waldo County (ibid. 222). For outside of Maine, incubation has been reported (Forbush, 1927: 106) as lasting 21 to 24 days, and both sexes taking part. One young, from a brood of four, was captured when it tumbled out of a nest on July 20, 1940, near Orono, Penobscot County (R. Beaton). Young were still in a nest on August 1, 1937, at Berwick, York County (Norton). Fledging probably requires about 26 days. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. There are at hand 21 records, since 1879, for December 21 to February 22. Of these, one is for Presque Isle (Chamberlain) ; two for Mt. Desert Island (Mrs. E. A. Anthony); six for Brewer (Hardy; Weston) ; and the remainder for Portland and vicinity and into coastal York County, as reported by N. C. Brown (1911b and 1913), Meyer (1914), the Journal of the Maine Ornithological Society, and unpublished notes. In several instances, as at Brewer, Mt. Desert Island, and Portland, individuals have stayed in the same locality all winter, and sometimes when the winters were quite severe. Ecology. This little hawk is typically a bird of the borders of open woodlands and the edges of clearings. It seldom spends much time in extensive open areas, except in migration, as it sometimes falls victim to the larger hawks. In the fall migration, this bird is semi- gregarious, long loose flocks occasionally being seen traveling south- eastward or southward. Remarks. From 1895 or earlier to about 1918, according to Norton, this hawk was the most numerous one in Maine, but it now occurs in much smaller numbers than the Broad-wing. There are several known instances of migrating birds falling into the PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 137 sea when flying off the coast, which probably indicates that the Sharp- shin is not capable of staying in the air for a long flight without resting. Of 18 stomachs containing food, Mendall (1944: 200) reported song birds (mostly sparrows) in 16, frogs in 1, mice in 1, and grasshoppers in 1. The birds were taken within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, over a period of years in April to October. Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 76) reported "Sparrow-haiclces" in Maine, which might refer to the Sharp-shin since it is very like the Sparrow Hawk of Europe. Cooper's Hawk Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte) Summer resident, regularly uncommon, breeding chiefly in the northern two thirds of the state and in lesser numbers southward, perhaps rarely including larger inshore islands; transient, rather com- mon in spring and fall; rare in winter. Spring. Migration begins by March 24 (several records) and lasts until about May 11, with most birds seen from April 5 to 19. Two early records, that may be for either transients or winter residents, are for a bird seen on March 19, 1914, near Portland, and two on March 22, 1894, at Falmouth, Cumberland County (Norton). Fall. Migration begins by September 6, reaches its peak from the 10th to 23rd, and is over by perhaps October 23. The few records from the latter date to November 30 may be for either late transients or wintering birds. Breeding. The nest is in a grove or woodland of either coniferous or deciduous growth. A shady site, such as a pine tree, is preferred. The nest is of sticks, often added to a Crow's old nest, and generally lined with grass, leaves, or bark. Two to six (usually four or five) eggs are laid, probably at any time during May. Incubation is reported variably, from different parts of the range of the species, as 21 to 27 days (probably 23 or 24), both sexes taking part. Norton and Spinney visited a nest on May 10, 1926, at Georgetown, Sagadahoc County, that was built on a Crow's nest in a tall pine. One parent was present, apparently incubating. On June 14 of the previous year, there had been four young in this same nest, being so nearly fledged that they managed to escape on the 29th when Spinney climbed the tree. On August 4, 1874, Brewster (1925: 320) found four young, out of the nest but still being fed by a parent, at Upton, Oxford County. Fledg- ing probably requires four weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. Sight records are: December 16, 1941, at Brewer (Weston); January 16, 1902, at Lewiston, Androscoggin County (Johnson in 138 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Sweet, 1904c: 78); February 14, 1942, at Brewer (Weston); and March 2, 1941, near Portland (Norton). These records are all for single birds. Ecology. This hawk is found more frequently in woodlands and less in forest edges than is its smaller relative, the Sharp-shin, and it preys on larger birds than does the latter. It prefers sites having a maximum of shade for nest-building. Like the Sharp-shin, it is semi-gregarious in fall, migrating in loosely formed flocks. Remarks. The numbers of this bird in Maine never have equalled those of the Sharp-shin. To see a dozen in a day at any point where transients regularly are seen in fall is a far less likely event than to see twice that many Sharp-shins. H. H. Waterman of Auburn, Androscoggin County, saw a Cooper's Hawk seize a Flicker and plunge it under water in a ditch, where the victim was held for about three minutes before the hawk was frightened away (Forbush, 1927: 115). There was a hybrid hawk, formerly in the Hardy collection, "which the authorities have not agreed in placing closer than to say it is the offspring of two of the following, Cooper's, Sharp-shinned, Broad- winged" (Powers, 1905:3). Eastern Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis borealis (Gmelin) Summer resident, regularly uncommon inland and on larger inshore islands; transient, regularly uncommon in spring and uncommon to rather common in fall throughout; winter resident, rare in coastal counties. Spring. Migration extends from March 28 to April 30, with most birds noted during the first half of April. Fall. Transients are noted from September 5 to November 6, with the majority seen from September 14 to 29. Breeding. "They build a large bulky nest of sticks, twigs and bark, lined with bark and twigs. Usually in Maine they select a poplar, birch or ash as a nesting site, though using occasionally almost any tree available, and placing the nest from thirty to seventy feet up, generally in rather open swampy woods." The same nest may be used year after year, "though in some instances there are two or three nests in the vicinity which the birds may occupy from season to season." Two to four eggs, "perhaps more often two with us," are laid, usually in late April through early May. (Summarized from Knight, 1908b: 227.) Knight (ibid.) recorded three eggs taken from a nest on May 6, 1895. Boardman (1907: 95) collected an egg on May 26, 1863; the locality PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 139 was probably near Milltown, New Brunswick, where he was living at the time. Incubation is reported variably, outside of Maine, as 28 to 32 days, the former figure probably being nearer correct. Fledging probably requires over six weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. Birds have been seen on an average of once in six years, the recent slight increase in records perhaps being due to more observers. Ecology. This hawk is more of an upland than a lowland species. In Maine, it now is found more often in rather open woods or mixed or hardwood growth, as compared to former greater occurrence in exten- sive woodlands where coniferous trees predominated. This change in habitat preference has come about during the past 50 years. Remarks. In the Lake Umbagog region, the Red-tail was fairly common until about 1890, present in reduced numbers to 1894 or 1895, and noted rarely thereafter by Brewster whose visits to the area ceased in 1909. Brewster (1925: 325) wrote, in part: "Their well-nigh total disappearance of late from a region where they have been so nearly free from human molestation, and where there are still extensive forests of large deciduous trees, would be surprising were it not for the coincident, and rather general 'fading out' of the species elsewhere. This is difficult to explain unless by assuming that, because of recent and widespread destruction of primitive forest-growths, New England as a whole has ceased to be attractive to Red-tailed Hawks. If so, their abandonment of the comparatively few and remote woodland areas unscathed as yet by axe or fire is not remarkable." According to Norton, this decline was paralleled throughout Maine during the same period. At the pres- ent time, this hawk is seen regularly in summer in quite a few places and, judging from all available data, may have increased slightly in the past decade. Of 21 stomachs, Mendall (1944: 200) reported Meadow Mice in 8, insects (predominantly grasshoppers) in 7, Red Squirrels in 4, Garter Snakes in 2, a frog in 1, shrew in 1, Snowshoe Hare in 1, and one empty stomach. The hawks were taken probably within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, over a period of years from April to November. "None had eaten game birds, but poultry was found in one, and the bird without food in its stomach was shot while killing a fowl." Northern Red-shouldered Hawk Buteo lineatus li?ieatus (Gmelin) Summer resident, rather common throughout, and occasional on some of the larger inshore islands; transient, common in spring and fall throughout; winter resident, rare in coastal counties. 140 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Spring. Migration begins about March 4 and ends by April 28, with the peak of the flight from March 15 to April 7. Fall. Transients are noted from September 5 to October 28 or later, with most records from September 14 to 27. Breeding and summer. "The bulky nest of sticks and twigs is usually placed on the limbs of hardwood trees at heights of twenty to seventy feet, and sometimes also in hemlock or spruces or even pines. The nest is usually placed on a limb or limbs and against the trunk, or sometimes out on the branches. Some nests are lined with hemlock or cedar bark while many contain the half opened catkins of willows and poplar, and often fresh green leaves of poplar or birch. The same nest is often used for many successive seasons" (Knight, 1908b: 228). In the Portland region, Norton saw adults at nests as early as March 23, 1890, and March 29, 1910; the first nest contained three fresh eggs on April 26. Although two to six eggs are laid by this species, all Maine records at hand are for clutches of two or three. The earliest date is April 19, 1890, when Norton found three fresh eggs in a nest at Port- land. Eight other Maine sets, including published records and data from Norton, Rich, and Eckstorm, are for fresh or slightly incubated clutches taken in southern counties from April 28 to May 6. Robbed nests have had second clutches completed by May 24 (Norton). The incubation period is reported variably, outside of Maine, as 25 to 28 days, and Knight (1908b: 229) gave 27 days. The young are fledged in four to five weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Occasional adults, perhaps having lost their eggs elsewhere, have been seen on outer islands in early summer. Ecology. This hawk is, in general, a lowland species. It is more of a woodland bird than the Red-tail, inhabiting groves surrounded by open fields, or extensive areas of mixed or, more often, deciduous growth. It also shows a stronger tendency to nest near water than does the latter. Remarks. "That the Red-shouldered Hawk should have remained almost unknown in the Umbagog Region until after the Red-tailed Hawk had practically ceased to reappear, and that not long thereafter it should have apparently established itself as a summer resident in at least two localities, are matters of considerable interest, in view of the fact that throughout much, if not most, of Massachusetts there has been essentially similar and contemporaneous replacement of the greater by the lesser bird" (Brewster, 1925: 327). The Red-shoulder has maintained its ascendancy in numbers at Umbagog and elsewhere in Maine, undoubtedly because of removal of the original forest and its replacement by mainly deciduous woodland. Knight (1908b: 229) wrote: "In nests with young there are often PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 141 found mice, rats, squirrels, frogs and sometimes chickens. The old birds feed on similar material, various mammals, snakes and other reptiles constituting the greater portion of then food, but small birds, game birds and poultry are also taken to some extent. They certainly destroy enough injurious mammals to offset the damage they do to poultry." Of 14 stomachs of this hawk, Mendall (1944:200-201) reported insects in 7, snakes in 3, shrews in 3, frogs in 3, song birds in 3, mice in 2, a large bird (possibly Ruffed Grouse) in 1, Snowshoe Hare in 1, and a mass of plant material in 1. The birds were taken probably within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, over a period of years from April through September. Northern Broad-winged Hawk Buteo platypterus platypterus (Vieillot) Summer resident, uncommon to rather common (in unsettled areas) throughout, including larger wooded islands; transient, common in spring and fall throughout. Spring. Transients are noted from April 3 to May 5, most birds being seen from April 17 to 30. Two early records are for March 29, 1910, at Manchester, Kennebec County (Pope in Sweet, 1911b: 63), and March 31, 1905, at Skowhegan, Somerset County (Swain in Sweet, 1906b: 36). On April 30, 1940, more than 75 were seen at Hebron, Oxford County (R. S. Davey). Fall. Migration extends from August 28 to October 18, with the peak of the flight from September 7 to 26. A remarkable flight of over 900 birds was seen on September 16, 1945, and 33 birds the following day, at Cape Rosier, Hancock County (R. C. Allison, and others). About 80 were seen in less than an hour, 21 birds being in sight at one time, on the morning of September 18, 1943, at South Brooksville in the same county (K. Tousey). Late stragglers have been noted on October 30, 1884, at Lake Umbagog by Brewster (1925: 328), and on October 30, 1910, at Manchester by Pope and at Ellsworth, Hancock County, by Miss Stanwood (in Sweet, 1911b: 63). Breeding. The yellow birch is a favorite nesting tree for this hawk, but occasionally it builds in evergreens (C. Stanwood). "Both birds help build the nest and take turns in incubating. Unlike many other Hawks they seem rarely to reoccupy the same nest another season. The nest is the usual structure of sticks and twigs, lined with bark, hemlock twigs and often with green leaves and twigs of poplar, elm and basswood" (Knight, 1908b: 232). 142 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Two to four eggs are laid, most Maine records being for two or three. In Oxford County, apparently, Carpenter (1884a: 9) found a nest with four eggs on May 2. On May 3, 1936, Norton found a new nest at Portland; it had very small young in it on the 30th. Clutches of three slightly incubated eggs were found on May 16, 1939, at Holden, Penobscot County, and on May 26, 1914, at Dedham, Hancock County, and clutches of two fresh eggs on May 17, 1939, and on May 22, 1940, at Dedham, all by Eckstorm. At Ellsworth, Hancock County, Miss Stanwood found a nest on May 10, 1919, two eggs being incubated on the 18th, and, on June 22, two young believed to have been about five days old. Brewster (1925: 332) found two eggs about to hatch on June 8, 1897, at Pine Point, Lake Umbagog, and Tyson and Bond (1941 : 56) gave June 12 as a date for eggs on Mt. Desert Island. The incubation period is reported, in Massachusetts, as 23 to 25 days (Burns, 1911:267-268). At Ellsworth, Miss Stanwood ob- served fledging to be "about 40 days," a period which is in agreement with that indicated by Burns' (ibid. 276) report of a captive young bird being able to fly well at 40 days of age. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. This is a bird of hardwood and mixed forests, tending to nest near watercourses or in swamps. Brewster (1925: 329) aptly termed the Broad-wing as a "constitutionally phlegmatic and inert" species. The young especially are very unwary. The bird is semi- gregarious when migrating. Remarks. The slight evidence seems to indicate that this hawk was increasing in numbers in the latter decades of the 1800's, but has since declined steadily, mainly from shooting. Even so, it is the most common of the hawks throughout most of Maine. Of 58 stomachs of this hawk, Mendall (1944: 201) reported insects (beetles and their larvae in 23, caterpillars in 12) in 37, frogs in 15, mice (Meadow and Red-backed) in 15, moles and shrews in 13, snakes (Garter Snakes most often identified) in 12, Snowshoe Hares in 6, song birds in 5, spiders in 3, and a toad, Red Squirrel, and crustacean each in 1. The birds were taken probably within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, during a period of years from April through Sep- tember. When the young were still in the nest studied at Ellsworth, Miss Stanwood found the remains of a Star-nosed Mole, a Red-backed Mouse, and a Red Squirrel. Brewster (1925: 329) has written an excellent account of the toad- hunting habits of this hawk in early summer at Lake Umbagog. I have observed similar habits on the Upper Magalloway, north of Umbagog, where the Broad-wings perched on stumps and even floating water-soaked logs to watch for their prey. A hybrid hawk, one parent perhaps being of the present species, has been mentioned previously under Cooper's Hawk. palmer: maine birds 143 Swainson's Hawk Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte Four records (possibly five). One was taken on September 15, 1886, at Gouldsboro, Hancock County (Brewster, 1887c); another on May 19, 1888, at Glenburn, Penobscot County (Brewster (1888); a third about October 8, 1892, at Calais, Washington County (Board- man in Webster, 1893: 30; Brewster, 1893: 82); and Knight (1908b: 230) quoted Hardy as stating he had seen at least two specimens from Penobscot County, but it is not indicated whether the Glenburn bird was included in these. Remarks. All birds were in the melanistic phase, except for the Calais one which, from the description, appears to have been inter- mediate in color. American Rough-legged Hawk Buteo lagopvs s-johannis (Gmelin) Transient and winter resident, varying from rather common in some years to probably absent in others. Reports of summer occurrence are considered questionable. Fall The Rough-leg usually does not arrive until November 17 or later, and, rarely, as early as October 21. Very early records are for several seen September 13 to 15, 1941, at Mt. Desert Island (A. C. Bagg), and one seen on October 12, 1940, from the summit of Mt. Bigelow, Somerset County (N. P. Hill, and others). Winter. Quite a few of these hawks were present in the winter of 1903-04 (Noble, 1904a). Unfortunately, Maine records are too fragmentary to indicate numbers, or even seasons of presence or ab- sence with any degree of accuracy. Records of taxidermists might provide valuable data on these points. Spring. This hawk usually has departed by March 16, but there are these later records: two seen on March 24, 1938, over western Penob- scot Bay, and a female shot on March 28, 1911, at Falmouth, Cumber- land County (Norton); one seen on April 3, 1944, at Bangor (Mrs. P. Hannemann); one seen on April 19, 1941, on Mt. Desert Island (Wes- ton); one shot on May 3, 1935, at Great Head on Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941 : 57) ; and a report of one seen between May 28 and June 3, 1946, at Southwest Harbor, Mt. Desert Island, by Mrs. H. Mann. Ecology. This is a bird of open places, such as large fields, shores of lakes, extensive marshes, bogs, and unforested areas on islands. 144 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Remarks. Brewer (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1874, 3:310) wrote: "A pair was found breeding near the mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine, and the eggs were secured." And further (ibid. 311-312), he described an egg "from near Wiscassett," Lincoln County, stating that one of the adults at the nest was collected. C. J. Maynard (1909: 116) reported seeing a pair on July 2, 1909, below Bath on the Kennebec River. I question the accuracy of both of these published reports, especially of breeding. The March 28th specimen from Falmouth, cited under Spring, had eaten a Meadow Mouse (Norton). Mendall (1944: 206) reported that three birds, probably taken within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, had eaten mice. Field observations made by Norton on March 24, 1938, were as follows: "In crossing West Penobscot Bay during a light northwest wind, one of these hawks came from the direction of Ash Point, making for Fox Island Thoroughfare. When first seen, it was at an elevation of perhaps 30 feet above the water, alternately flying and soaring; then it swept down just above the water's surface and flew onward. Another one, of similar appearance in color, was seen over Widow's Island, scaling like a harrier, then poising like a Kingfisher, over the open grassland of the island, working against the fresh breeze of the northwest wind. It was very graceful in flight." American Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos canadensis (Linnaeus) Occurs throughout most of the year, breeder in two or three counties, but whether those nesting in Maine perform short or long migrations is not known ; transient in small numbers in spring and fall. Spring. It is not certain whether the few late February and early March records for the coast and for inland areas away from mountains are local birds wandering from their nesting territories or transients. Fall. Most sight records and captures are this season. Wandering or migratory adult and young birds are seen on the coast from August 24 into November, although only occasionally after October 14. A early coastal record is for one seen on August 10, 1932, at Wiscassett, Lincoln County (R. T. Peterson), and the latest specific coastal date is for a female shot on November 17, 1894, on Isle au Haut (Bob Black, 1894). Throughout the fall, birds are seen about inland moun- tains. Breeding. Only cliff nests are known in Maine. In one instance, two nests are close to each other. Undoubtedly these were built by the PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 145 same birds, since elsewhere this species is known to use adjacent nests on alternate years. The nest is of sticks or branches, lined with twigs and various plant materials, additions being made throughout the nesting season. It is probable that two eggs make a clutch, and that they are laid in March. Outside of Maine, incubation has been re- ported variably as 28 to 45 days, probably being about 40. The young probably attain flying age in about ten weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. There are no records for December at hand, but the species undoubtedly is present. There are records for inland from January 7 on. Ecology. This bird is strictly a cliff-nesting species in Maine, although one may expect to find it almost anywhere, inland and on the coast, outside of the breeding season. Coastal occurrences merely indicate that the coastline defines a flyway, for this eagle does not show a partiality for the vicinity of water as does the Bald Eagle. In hunt- ing, the Golden Eagle flies low over woods and brushy or treeless areas, often flushing its quarry at very close range, whereas the Bald Eagle hunts from a greater height. Remarks. This eagle is not a new addition to the breeding fauna of the state. There is very good evidence that it nested as far back as the late 1600's at least, and the kind of eagle that nested on mountain cliffs was a conspicuous element in the folklore of the native Indians. These matters have been discussed by Mrs. F. H. Eckstorm (1936). Among other things, she pointed out that the "pilhannaw, or mechquan" of Josselyn (1672; 1865a: 40-41) was the Golden Eagle. In the past 100 years, the Golden Eagle has bred in four or five counties in the state. At present, it breeds in only two, or possibly three, of these, and at least four different sites probably are in use. The other known sites were abandoned when nearby areas where brought under cultivation. Considering the rarity of this bird as a nesting species, and the possibility of their being molested, it seems inadvisable to divulge the localities of eyries at the present time. The reason for believing that this bird is transient in Maine is that the numbers of records for coastal counties, as well as those for farther south in New England, is certainly in excess of the number of birds from Maine eyries alone. Hardy (1900) gave 8% pounds as the weight of a specimen. His journal shows that this bird, an adult male, was killed on March 12, 1880, in Penobscot County. A female, shot on March 18, 1893, in the Province of Quebec, weighed 10 pounds and 14 ounces (Roberts, 1893). Two adult and two young Golden Eagles and a nest, collected in Oxford County, formerly were in the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and 146 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Sciences. A photograph of the group and a few facts about it are to be found in the Institute's Report for 1906. G. M. Allen (1903: 100), citing an account by C. A. Hawes of finding a nest in July, 1876, in New Hampshire, stated that this appeared to be the last breeding record for that state. There is reason to believe that the species may have bred recently in the Adirondacks. Northern Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus washingtonii (Audubon) Resident (? performing short or long migrations), in summer, regu- larly uncommon throughout, and in winter, common to sometimes numerous in a few localities on the coast; transient, numbers unknown, mainly coastwise. Spring. There is a noticeable shift in population in January and to about March 10, when many birds leave the wintering areas for their nesting territories. A few, mostly immature birds, remain until late April or later. On April 26 and 27, 1935, near Cherryfield, Washington County, there were two adult birds, eight first-year, and 15 second- or third-year birds seen (Gross). Fall. Beginning in August, small companies, usually family groups, gather at suitable feeding places along rivers, or on lakes and ponds, or on the coast. Migration, occurring in September and October, is more noticeable in some years than in others, for transients often fly at a high altitude and may pass unobserved. On September 16, 1945, fifty-two birds were seen at Cape Rosier, Hancock County (R. and M. Emery; R. and P. Allison); one day in October, 1932, about 30 were seen migrating in a loose flock at Damariscotta Lake, Lincoln County (Bent, 1937: 346). A bird was banded November 5, 1934, at Kittery Point, York County, and recovered on October 22, 1935, at Richlieu Village in the Province of Quebec (M. T. Cooke, 1941: 155). That a few remain inland after the freeze-up is shown by occasional reports of these birds feeding on foxes in traps in November. Breeding. Nests are at varying heights in live or dead coniferous or deciduous trees, perhaps large live white pines being most often selected. Bent (1937: 339) found a nest in a dead yellow birch, "only 10 inches thick near the base," on an island in Jericho Bay. The nest is built of limbs and branches and lined with smaller twigs and other vegetation, sometimes including pieces of grassy turf. The same nest is used on successive years, with additions made before and, in lesser amounts, during incubation and even fledging. When a nest finally falls down, another often is built close by. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 147 Spinney noted a pair of birds staying about a nest from January 5 on, in 1925, in Sagadahoc County; Weston saw two birds perched beside a nest on February 28, 1940, in Hancock County; and Norton saw a nest, "under repair," on March 24, 1929, in Sagadahoc County. Data on completed clutches in Maine show that two, and less often three, eggs are laid. The earliest date is March 2(1, 1880, when Spinney collected a set of three fresh eggs in Sagadahoc County. Eleven other sets, mentioned in the literature or in data from Spinney, Harris, and Norton, were taken from April 1 to 23, with incubation noted as "slight" to "advanced." Apparently in Oxford County, Carpenter (1884a: 9) found a set of eggs, "greatly advanced" in incubation, on April 4, 1883, indicating that laying occurred in the interior of Maine by the middle of March. The finding of a single young, already six or seven inches long, on April 27, 1865, in a nest on the Damariscotta River, Lincoln County (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1874, 3:332- 333) would indicate laying in early March near the coast. According to F. H. Herrick's (1932: 318-321) studies in Ohio, incu- bation is by both parents and lasts 34 or 35 days, but may be longer if interrupted. The nearest to a hatching date for Maine is for a clutch of two eggs that I found to have hatched between April 26 and May 2, 1932, in Sagadahoc County. Herrick (1924: 226-227) also found that fledging required ten to eleven weeks, the young leaving the nest either voluntarily or being lured away by food carried by one of the parents, and the nest was used for a perch for several weeks thereafter. Dates for last young leaving Maine nests, near the coast, are June 29 (Norton) and July 20 (Palmer). The family remains together for a period after the young are fledged, perhaps well into autumn. One brood is raised yearly. The birds attain the adult plumage (white head and tail) in not less than three years. F. H. Herrick (1924: 217) believed that sexual ma- turity was attained in one year. In 1938, Eckstorm found a nest with fertile eggs, one of the pair of eagles in attendance being in adult plumage and the other in brown. Winter. After the birds arrive at the coastal wintering places, there are local movements of the population, depending on availability of food. If our bays freeze over during very cold weather, most of the birds move southwestward, sometimes out of the state. At such times, considerable numbers have been seen at Newburyport Harbor, Massa- chusetts, and on adjacent w 7 aters. The farthest inland record for this season is for one seen by WestOn on January 7, 1942, at Ripogenus Dam, Piscataquis County. Undoubtedly some birds from farther north and east winter on our coast. Ecology. This eagle is a tree-nester in Maine and, as elsewhere, 148 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology generally is found rather close to water at all seasons. A number of persons have noted that several pairs will nest rather near one another at favorable feeding places. Largely a scavenger, it also is parasitic on the Osprey. Remarks. Several pairs bred formerly on Roque Island, Washington County (Longfellow, 1876). A "colony" of these birds used to nest about Merrymeeting Bay (Anon., 1898b). In the 1820's, thirteen eagles circled about when Manly Hardy's father climbed a nest on Peaks Island in Casco Bay, but "eagles were then more numerous on our coast, as rifles and strychnine have greatly reduced their numbers" (Hardy, 1908). In the early 1890's, Spinney knew of 15 occupied nests on the lower Kennebec below Bath; by 1908, these had been reduced to three. Knight (1908b: 236) estimated that not over 100 pairs were breeding in Maine at the time he wrote. The current estimate, be- lieved to be liberal, is not over 60 pairs. These eagles and their nests, being large and conspicuous, are subject to molestation by humans. A few birds inland are shot by trappers, because the eagles prey to some extent, in fall, on animals caught in traps. In town meeting at Vinalhaven in 1806, a motion was carried to pay a bounty of 20 cents per head on eagles (Lyons and others, 1889: 17). This eagle feeds mostly on dead or injured birds or mammals, dead fish or those nearly stranded in shallow water, or fish taken by force from the Osprey in flight. They have been reported fishing, in Maine or nearby, by Roamer (1874: 324), Boardman (1875), Brewster (1880: 58), Hardy (1883), and several others. In one instance, apparently near Calais, one of these birds was seen to strike some object in the water, perhaps a seal, and was drawn beneath the surface (Boardman, 1875). Josselyn- (1672; 1865a: 43-44) wrote: "They [adults and young] are both cowardly Kites, preying upon Fish cast up on the shore. In the year 1668, there was a great mortality of eels in Casco Bay; thither resorted, at the same time, an infinite number of Gripes [Bald Eagles]; insomuch that, being shot by the Inhabitants, they fed their hogs with them for some weeks." A similar event was recorded by Brewster (1880: 58): "During the past season [1879] a mortality occurred among the suckers at Lake Umbagog, and thousands were left upon the marshes and flats by the receding water. The Eagles assembled in such numbers that no less than twenty-five were counted in one day." Norton (1907d: 321) reported an eagle killing two Herring Gulls at Great Duck Island, Hancock County. In the bays where both Bald Eagles and ducks are together in winter, as at Back Cove, Portland, the capture of an occasional waterfowl generally results in condemnation of the eagles by local observers. From long observation, Norton was inclined toward the belief that relatively few PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 149 healthy birds ever were captured. In a storm on June 9, 1933, a nest containing two eaglets was blown down at Mt. Desert Island; when A. Stupka examined the fallen nest, among items he found in it were three Osprey legs. For many years the Boston Society of Natural History had on ex- hibition a mounted Bald Eagle, said to have been taken as a nestling from a nest near Bangor in May, 1827, to have been kept in captivity for 20 years, and to have been the model for Audubon's plate, showing an adult bird eating a catfish, in his Birds of America. That Audubon used this bird for a model was an error dating back to an entry in the Society's catalogue when the specimen was accessioned. It first appeared in print in Ridgway (1874: 68). For many years the Society sold postcard pictures of this bird and gave it a full-page halftone (p. 101) in Milestones, the 1930 centennial publication of the Society. In April, 1935, the late J. F. Fanning, of Portland, wrote to the director of the Society's museum, pointing out the error. Audubon's original drawing was done on the Mississippi in 1820, before the Bangor bird existed, and was re-done in 1828, before the specimen in question could have attained the white head and tail of the adult plumage shown in the artist's plate. Kennard (1930) published a correction of the long- standing error. A bird of unstated sex and age, killed at Scarborough, May 10, 1912, weighed 6J^ pounds (Norton); Hardy (1900) gave 9% pounds as the weight of another. Hardy's journal shows that the latter, "probably" a male, was killed on February 7, 1880, by flying against a tree in Orrington, Penobscot County. Eagle bones, of unstated species, were found in an Indian shellheap at Lamoine, Hancock County (Moorehead, 1922: 166). Rosier (1605) saw eagles at St. George, Knox County. Mention of "Eagles" and "Gripes" along the New England coast, by Capt. John Smith (1616: 47), undoubtedly referred to Bald Eagles. The numerous topographic features in Maine with which the name Eagle is linked, were listed by Attwood (1946: 140-141). Many of these indicate where the bird formerly nested or hunted, but is now only a visitor. See also p. 64, where I have discussed the corruption of the Abnaki word for eagle. Southern Bald Eagle Haliacetus leucocephalus leucocephalus (Linnaeus) Two records. On August 7, 1890, Norton shot an adult male at Cliff Island in Casco Bay, measurements being: wing, 574 mm.; tail, 243 150 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology mm.; and culmen, 60 mm. One, banded as a nestling on January 21, 1942, at St. Petersburg, Florida, was found dead on August 20 of the same year at Burnham, Waldo County (Broley, 1947: 4). Remarks. Other published references to occurrence of this subspecies in Maine appear to be based on the erroneous belief that the state is within its breeding range. Birds banded as nestlings in Florida also have been captured in Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward's Island (Broley, ibid.). American Marsh Hawk Circus cyaneus hudsonius (Latham) Summer resident, rather common in suitable localities throughout, including inshore islands ; transient, common in spring and fall through- out; one winter record. Spring. This species is seen regularly in southwestern coastal coun- ties by March 25, and occasionally from March 19 to 24. Three early records are for birds seen March 14 and 15, 1908, in the Portland region (in Brownson, 1909:82), and March 16, 1945, at Brunswick, Cumberland County (C. Packard). Weston's earliest record for Brewer is March 20, 1946, and Chamberlain's for Presque Isle is March 29 of unstated year. Migration reaches its peak throughout the state during the first 12 days of April and ceases about May 5. Fall. Transients are noted from late August to October 29 or later, most birds being seen the first three weeks in September. On July 27, 1946, there was a "definite movement" of this species in the Mus- congus Bay region (Cruickshank). Norton noted a female, probably migrating, on offshore Matinicus Rock, Knox County, on August 15, 1916. Published records for Monhegan range from September 9, 1918 (Dewis, 1919: 39), to October 15 of that year (Wentworth in Jenney, 1919: 26). The largest number reported seen in a single day was 25 on September 16, 1945, at Cape Rosier, Hancock County (M. and R. Emery). Very late dates are November 9, 1882, in the Portland region (N. C. Brown, 1882f : 22), and, "very exceptionally it has been taken as late as November twelfth" (Knight, 1908b: 219). Breeding. "Their nest of weeds, grasses, rushes, and similar material is well made, placed on the ground in a marsh or meadow and con- cealed quite well by the growth around it. Often a nest will contain fresh or slightly incubated eggs along with others in various stages up to those nearly ready to hatch" (ibid. 220). Three to six (usually five) PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 151 eggs make a clutch. In Maine, laying probably occurs in May. Actual dates for eggs or young are: six eggs, perhaps half incubated, about May 20, at Damariscotta, Lincoln County (T. M. Brewer, 1857: 44); four eggs in "varying stages of incubation" on June 4, 1892, at Bangor (Knight, 1908b: 220); three eggs, advanced in incubation, on June 6, 1941, at Mt. Desert Island (Eckstorm); and four young, of unstated age, in the "middle" of June, 1879, at Brunswick (Lee, 1880). Out- side the state, the incubation period has been reported variably by different authors as 21 to 31 days; probably it is near the latter figure. In New Jersey, Urner (1925: 40) found that both sexes incubate and take care of the young, which are fledged in about 30 to 35 days. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. One was seen on December 31, 1939, on Monhegan (Mrs. J. A. Townsend). Ecology. This hawk is a persistent hunter of Field Mice (Microtus), reptiles, amphibians, and insects, particularly in damp swales or marshes. Hunting territory along the coast sometimes includes several adjacent islands, a mile or more apart, and one or both mem- bers of a pair shift from island to island at fairly regular times of the day during summer. On some inshore islands, a few individuals have adopted the habit of subsisting on flightless young terns. In Cumber- land County in August, Norton several times observed these hawks on the ground, half running, half flying, as they pursued grasshoppers in open fields. This species is more crepuscular than many hawks, feeding regularly until nightfall. Migrants feed largely on smaller birds. Remarks. This hawk has decreased slowly throughout Maine, but still is a regular inhabitant of most of the terrain suited to its nesting requirements. It has held up in population better than other hawks of its size, the main factor in its favor being the larger broods produced in comparison with the others. Of 36 stomachs containing food, the hawks being collected from April to October probably within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, Mendall (1944:201) reported mainly Meadow Mice (but moles or shrews in 2) in 17, non-game birds (predominantly sparrows) in 12, poultry or game birds (Ruffed Grouse in 1, Black Duck in 2) in 7, frogs in 3, insects in 2, and snakes in 2. He pointed out (ibid. 202), however, that this study was limited in scope and should not be used as a basis for condemning this hawk as an undesirable species. Two adult males, killed in spring in Cumberland County, weighed 12}/2 and 15 ounces, and two females 19 ounces each (Norton). 152 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Family PANDIONIDAE American Osprey Pandion haliaetus carolinensis (Gmelin) Summer resident, common on the coast and islands from Casco Bay eastward and uncommon (locally common in a few places) on inland waterways; transient, common in spring and fall coastwise, and in lesser numbers inland; four winter records. Spring. Migration occurs from March 28 to May 8, most birds being seen from April 3 to 19. Two very early records are for birds seen March 19, 1910, at Wells, York County (Spinney), and March 26, 1884, at Westbrook, Cumberland County (Norton). Most early records for points well inland are after April 4. For Rangeley, Franklin County, Richardson (1896) reported the first bird of the season seen on April 15, 1896, when the snow was nearly three feet deep. Fall. Migration lasts from about September 4 to October 22, the peak of the flight occurring in the second and third weeks of September. Relatively few birds are seen after October 7. Three very late dates for single birds seen are November 1, 1946, at Bangor (F. Dean), November 14, 1946, at Long Pond, "about 40 miles from Bangor" (Mrs. P. Hannemann), and November 22, 1913, at Falmouth, Cum- berland County (Norton). Breeding. This bird tends to nest in small colonies (see Remarks), and the same nest is used on successive years. Nests sometimes are located on the ground, but more usually on the tops of derricks, bea- cons, spindles and other navigational aids, bluffs, rocks, trees, tele- graph poles, and on platforms placed on wiers and elsewhere for them by fishermen. Nests are built of branches, driftwood, seaweed, eel- grass, a great variety of other plant materials, in fact, almost anything available is used, with the lining of the finer materials. After more than 40 years' observations along the coast, Norton, in a manuscript note, wrote: "It is noticeable that, with much less driftwood than was common 20 years ago, and the present [1937] absence of eelgrass, Osprey nests are much less bulky than formerly and very deficient in number of sticks. Using materials now available, they build nests which are very low and inconspicuous, those on rocks being visible only at short range." Knight (1898a: 12) reported nests having addi- tions made to them in July and August. Another, at Pulpit Harbor in North Haven, Knox County, was begun in the fall of 1934, and more material added in early 1935 before the first clutch of eggs was laid in it (Norton). On April 15 and 16, 1923, Norton saw pairs at several nests about Pulpit Harbor; one bird was sitting on a nest but it proved to be empty. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 153 Two, more often three, and rarely four, eggs make a clutch, and are laid from early May to early June. The earliest records are for three fresh eggs taken on May 8, 1878, at Carver's Harbor in Vinalhaven, Knox County (J. P. Norris, 1891 : 164), and a set of four fresh eggs taken on May 9, 1879, at Vinalhaven (Eddy, 1S82). Incubation probably requires 35 to 3S days, although it has been reported, outside of Maine, as a much shorter period, and is mainly by the female. The earliest record of young is for two very small birds on June 6, 1937, at Sheep Island, near North Haven (Norton). Fledging probably re- quires about 55 to 65 days. One brood is raised yearly. Winter. Four winter records are: one seen on December 9, 1906, at Portland (in Brownson, 1907c: 37); one shot on January 1, 1919, in Brunswick or vicinity, Cumberland County (Walch, 1926:22); one seen on January 20, 1945, at Eagle Island in Casco Bay (C. Packard) ; and one seen on February 19, 1947, in the Bar Harbor region, Mt. Desert Island (Hersey in Gross, 1947f : 33). Ecology. The Osprey is always found in the vicinity of water. In feeding, it hovers over the water, then plunges from an altitude, usually under 100 feet, to catch a fish, sometimes submerging completely. In one instance at Blue Hill, Hancock County, one was dragged under water and drowned, apparently being unable to release its grip on a large fish (McAdoo, 1930). Sometimes the Osprey will eat freshly killed fish thrown overboard (Palmer). This bird often is parasitized by the Bald Eagle, but seldom does it attempt a 'retaliatory' attack, though this has been reported by Burr (1912) and Storer (1940). At several points on our coast, Ospreys nest near colonies of Great Blue and Black-crowned Night Herons ; the Ospreys dive at the herons whenever the latter chance to fly near the hawks' nests. Hardy (1896b: 114) wrote: "Of late years, all along our coast, Fish-hawks, which formerly always nested in trees, have been forced by the trees in many places either being cut or blown down, to find other nesting sites, or abandon their old fishing-grounds." Remarks. About 1866 or 1867, there were about ten or a dozen nests at a point on the Damariscotta River, Lincoln County (Richards, 1910); in 1870, there were 15, probably 20, nests within a mile square area at Harpswell, Cumberland County (Woodman, 1870) ;about 1873, there were 14 occupied nests on Green's Island, Vinalhaven (E. D. Rack! iff); and about 1885, thirteen pairs nested at Great Pond Marsh in Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County (Spinney) . There also were colonies in Penobscot and Jericho Bays. By 1900, however, few, if any, birds nested at these various localities. Norton, in a manuscript note, offered a strongly-worded explanation of this bird's decrease on the coastal nesting grounds, as follows: 154 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology "Persons of mature and well-ordered minds seldom molest these birds, which are regarded as harmless and industrious. There is a degree of reverence, and even superstition, against killing an Osprey on the Maine coast. During the two decades of 1880 and 1890, there was an influx of foreign-born people into the state, whose primitive conception of hunting was abetted by an abundance of cheap fowling pieces and ammunition. Reverence and superstition were ignored. These fine birds paid the penalty of being abundant and solicitous of the welfare of their nests; the birds were attractive targets for the blood-thirsty beings who deemed themselves 'sportsmen' in destroying hawks. Another cause of destruction was the market value of richly-colored bird eggs among collectors; the handsome eggs of this hawk were easy to obtain and brought a few cents in the egg market." The situation changed for the better, however, and by 1935, these birds were beginning to reoccupy their former nesting grounds, though in much fewer numbers than formerly were present. The Osprey appears to have increased very slightly during the past ten years, so that now there are at least 300 pairs in the state. At some points on the coast, the old superstition — to kill an Osprey brings bad luck — operates in their favor. There are little specific data on food of this bird in Maine. Knight (1908b: 250-251) gave a detailed list of fish which included trout and salmon; he said, however, that according to his experience, these two fish seldom were taken. Norton noted suckers and a flounder in various nests. Fallfish may be a regular food item at some inland points, as I have observed on the Upper Magalloway, Oxford County. A nest in a dead pine on a small islet [now submerged by a raised water level] in Sebago Lake, Cumberland County, was reported to have been occupied for over 30 successive summers (Black Spot, 1886). A nest on a ledge at the entrance to Pulpit Harbor is known to have been occupied for nearly a century (Norton). The "Wilde Hawkes" of Capt. John Smith (1616) were Ospreys. Family FALCONIDAE American Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus obsoletus Gmelin Visitant, occasional from fall to early spring throughout, the extreme dates being "about the middle" of September and "about March 22." Records. Definite records where actual or approximate dates and color of the birds are known are listed below, the birds being divided PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 155 into four color groups. It will be noted that dark birds occur most often. At least a dozen additional occurrences are known, but data are too fragmentary to include them here. Very light. One was shot on October 8, 1893, at South Winn, Penobscot County (Brewster, 1895a); one seen at very close range in January, 1929, at Cumberland Center, Cumberland County (W. Blanchard); and one seen on November 4, 1934, on Cadillac or Green Mountain, Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941: 57). Gray. One was shot on October 13, 1877, at Cape Elizabeth (N. C. Brown, 1882f: 1-2; Knight, 1897b). Dark Gray. One was captured alive in December, 1876, at Katahdin Iron Works, Piscataquis County (Purdie, 1879); one, for which data are lacking, taken in Maine before 1899 (Knight, 1899a: 1); one shot on December 11, 1906, at North Deering in Portland (Norton, 1907b); a female shot on March 7, 1907, at Jaquish Island, Harpswell, Cum- berland County (Knight, 1908b: 242); and one, seen for several days, killed on October 22, 1925, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926: 21-22). Very dark. A female was shot in November, 1886, at Wheeler's Ledge, Metinic Island, Knox County (Norton), and recorded as received from Rockland, by Brewster (1887a); one shot about the middle of September, 1887 (Knight, 1897d: 64), the locality being the Spurwink River, Scarborough (Norton, 1907b : 19) ; a female shot about March 22, 1888, at Eagle Island [? Penobscot Bay] (Brewster in Minot, 1895: 480); one shot in March or earlier, 1898, by Mr. Doughty of East Waterford, Oxford County (Knight, 1898c); a female shot on December 21, 1898, at Bangor (Merrill, 1899); "two years ago I was very near a Black Gyrfalcon and today [December 10, 1900] I saw another" (Hardy, 1901), probably both at Brewer; one taken on October 20, 1905, at Alton, Penobscot County (G. M. Allen, 1908a: 234) ; and one in "dark phase" seen in early October of unstated year on Mt. Desert Island (Tyson and Bond, 1941 : 57). Remarks. The stomach of a bird killed in January, probably in Penobscot County, contained poultry (Mendall, 1944:207). This is not one of the specimens cited above. Norton (1901a: 6) reported a white Gyrfalcon taken in Maine, but later (1907b: 20) corrected the error. American Peregrine Falcon; Duck Hawk Falco peregrinus anatum Bonaparte Summer resident, rare breeder in a few mountainous areas inland and at a few localities on the eastern half of the coast; transient, regularly 156 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology uncommon in spring and usually rather common in fall, chiefly coast- wise. Spring. Migration, mainly in the first half of April, extends from late March to May 7 or later. Earliest records are for a bird seen on March 14, 1901, at Westbrook, Cumberland County (Norton, 1901b: 27), and one arriving at a nesting site as early as March 23, in Hancock County (B. W. Barker, 1935). Birds are still migrating along the coast after incubation has begun at inland points. Fall. There is considerable wandering in August, but migration does not begin until about September 17 and ends by October 20, most birds being seen from October 2 to 12. A freshly killed bird was brought into a taxidermy shop in Portland on November 7, 1907 (Norton). Flight years. In 1898, there was a marked flight in the fall at Seguin (Spinney, 1899a), and in 1904, there was another there in the fall (Spinney in Swain, 1904c: 70). Breeding. This bird lays its eggs on ledges in cliffs, no actual nest being made. Sometimes, however, if there is soil or loose material present, the bird may scratch out a slight cavity for a nest. Birds have been seen at nesting sites the first week of April in several different years in Penobscot and Hancock Counties (Eckstorm, Weston), but no eggs were present. Usually three or four eggs make a clutch. Actual egg dates, all from Eckstorm's records, are: April 26, 1939, three fresh eggs, in Hancock County; April 29, 1940, four fresh in Penobscot County; and May 10, 1942, four slightly incubated eggs in Somerset County. Eggs may be laid at intervals of two days or more, and incubation begun before the clutch is completed. The incubation period has been determined in Massachusetts as 33 to 35 days, both adults taking part, and fledging as 33 to 35 also (Hagar in Bent, 1938: 50, 52). Fledged young have been seen near an eyrie on Mt. Desert Island on July 25 (Dietrich, 1938). In one instance on the coast, three adults stayed about an eyrie for three weeks in late September and early October (Norton). One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. This is typically a bird of open spaces. Inland nesting sites are generally in the vicinity of a lake or several ponds, but in several instances, nests are found where the surrounding country is largely unbroken forest. This bird is not known to occur regularly in cities in Maine as yet. Transients along the coast have been seen to perch on rocks only a few feet above the surface of the sea. Remarks. Probably less than ten pairs of Duck Hawks nest in Maine at present and it is doubtful that the population ever was a great deal larger in the past hundred years. After a trip along the coast in the summer of 1907, Norton (1907d: PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 157 323) wrote: "The presence of the Peregrine Falcon at the Brothers [off Jonesport, Washington County] seemed to me sufficient reason to account for the abandonment of Libby Island [about \ x /l miles from the Brothers] by the Terns. One of these birds took up its abode at the Egg Rocks, in Muscongus Bay, in 1901, and the Terns abandoned the place and their eggs. There I collected pellets filled with feathers and bones of Terns and Petrels." Since these petrels usually come into the bay only at night, to relieve mates on eggs in burrows, one wonders if the hawks pursued them by moonlight, after the manner of the larger gulls. That eggs of this species were found in Maine as early as April 14, as stated in print several times, is traceable to Carpenter (1884a: 9), who mentioned a nest, not eggs, found on this date. Eastern Pigeon Hawk Falco columbarius columbarius Linnaeus Transient, rather common in spring and common in fall on the coast, and rather common inland at both seasons; regularly uncommon in summer, noted chiefly in eastern counties (not known to breed); winter resident, records for Cumberland and Washington Counties. Spring. Migration apparently begins about March 28, earlier records probably being for wintering birds. During his years at Seguin (1893-1907), Spinney noted migrants from April 15 to May 10. Although most birds are seen in April, some (sometimes several seen together) are noted on the coast well into May. Pettingill (1939a: 333) mentioned a flight at Machias Seal Island (Canadian territory), about May 15, 1935. Fall. Apparently there is considerable wandering in August, for in this month, Pigeon Hawks have been observed at numerous places where they were not seen earlier in the summer. Whereas Spinney noted single birds at Seguin on August 10 and 13, 1898, most of his numerous records for this season fall between September 5 and 30; he generally saw several hundred in a season. Elsewhere, records to at least October 7 are for transients, and later ones probably for wintering birds. Flight year. In 1903, there was a large flight in September at Seguin (Spinney), and in 1906, an unusual scarcity in fall, which to Spinney (1906b: 101) indicated that the birds had "probably taken another direction of flight." Summer. About six birds are reported seen each year, from May 24 to August 7. Where age has been noted, records have been for adults 158 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology except in a few instances. (See Remarks for discussion of alleged breeding.) Winter. Six winter records for the Portland region were compiled by Norton (1910a). A few other occurrences in the same locality were published by N. C. Brown (1910 and 1911b), and there are several more recent ones for Cumberland County. Boardman (1903: 245) stated that he had shot this species in the St. Croix valley in winter, and Rich saw one on December 22, 1932, at Perry, Washington County. Ecology. This hawk occurs at such diverse places in the state as offshore islands, extensive coniferous or mixed-growth forests, at higher elevations on mountains where trees are small, cultivated lands, and about cities. Most early summer records are for localities where coniferous trees are a prominent feature. Spinney noted that transients generally accompanied a wave of smaller migrating birds at Seguin. Typical entries in his journal were September 29, 1907, a large number of Pigeon Hawks with Flickers April 18, 1898, many following a flight of Flickers and smaller birds May 1, 1901, Pigeon Hawks and Flickers coming in from seaward. Remarks. There is no unquestionable evidence of this hawk breeding in Maine, but it seems almost certain, from its summer occurrence, that the species does nest, even though rarely. Published statements that Maine was in the breeding range of the Pigeon Hawk go back to T. M. Brewer (1857: 13), who stated that the species bred as far south as Maine on the Atlantic coast. Boardman (1862: 122) wrote: "Resi- dent. Not common. Breeds in hollow trees" — an obvious error. Later, in publication of a letter he wrote in 1874, Boardman (1903 : 245) stated that he never had found a nest, that the species undoubtedly bred, and that it was not a very common hawk in the St. Croix valley. In a reprint of a list he first published in 1899 and 1900 (ibid. 308), the status of the Pigeon Hawk was given as: "Not uncommon; breeds on cliffs." The basis for this statement is unknown. Knight (1908b: 245) cited county records which indicated that this hawk bred in at least several counties; he also wrote that "young birds have been seen which were unable to fly, evidently just out of the nest, and during June the parents have been observed in a great state of excitement though the nests could not be located. I have had them both swoop down at me, uttering an angry . . . [series of notes] and exhibit every indication of trying to protect a nest which could not be located." It is plain that Knight himself did not see young Pigeon Hawks; nor were there any in his collection which Norton purchased. His informant might have seen Sparrow Hawks, which have been mistaken for Pigeon Hawks more than once. Further, such behavior as birds showing concern when an area is invaded by a person is not PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 159 conclusive evidence of a nest being nearby. Bonaparte's Gull, which does not breed in the state, has been known to exhibit such behavior in Maine. "Manuscript notes relating to Pigeon Hawks taken at Lake Umba- gog and preserved in my collection remind me that I found in the stomach of a young male, shot on September 11, 1873, 'grasshoppers in large numbers' and nothing else; in that of a second specimen of the same sex and similar age, killed on September 19, 1873, 'grass- hoppers and the remains of an adult male Goldfinch'; in that of a third . . . obtained on September 19, 1888, fragments of 'birds' that could not be determined specifically; in that of a fourth, taken on October 11, 1888, 'a Sparrow' which apparently was not identified" (Brewster, 1925: 361). Eight specimens, probably taken within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, and chiefly "in the spring and autumn," had shown preferences for song birds, frequency of oc- currence being: warblers in 2; sparrows in 2; a swallow in 1; un- identified passerine birds in 3, and insects in 1 (Mendall, 1944: 206). In writing of his general impression of Pigeon Hawks and Flickers as observed on Seguin, Spinney (1904: 74) wrote: "Scores of golden- wing woodpeckers or flickers better known, are searching ant hills on the ground, while from some elevated perch a pigeon hawk . . . scans the field with ever watchful eye. The pigeon hawks invariably accom- pany the flickers [in migrations], but for what purpose I never could determine. I have watched them many times, when from their perch the time seemed ripe for them, dart at a flicker on the ground which is busily searching for its bill of fare. The flicker then would start for the nearest cover or higher ground, uttering as it flew a series of shrieks, . . but I never saw a hawk injure the flicker in any way, or pilfer any food to reward it for its trouble." Brewster (1925:356) made a similar observation on September 19, 1888, at Lake Umbagog: "I saw a Pigeon Hawk chase a Flicker this morning, evidently without serious intent, for he turned back, after going only a few rods, and flew to a tall stub." T. M. Brewer (1857: 13), in figuring an egg, alleged to be of this species, from the Grand Manan archipelago, stated that he was hesitant about its identity, and later (1867: 122) wrote that the egg actually had been that of another species. Northern Sparrow Hawk Falco sparverius sparvcrius- Linnaeus Summer resident, rather common throughout except on larger inshore islands where uncommon; transient, rather common in spring and com- 160 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology mon in fall throughout; winter resident, regularly uncommon in coastal counties. Spring. The increasing number of records from March 19 on indi- cates that more than the wintering population generally is present after that date. Migration, most noticeable in the first three weeks of April, lasts into early May. Fall. Gatherings are noted and migration has begun by August 25. On August 25, 1900, this bird was "abundant" near Portland (Norton) ; on August 29, 1940, twenty were seen in Township 36, Washington County (Eckstorm); and on August 30, 1901, this species was "very plentiful" near Portland (Norton). Most migrants are seen from September 9 to 17, almost all have left by September 28, and migration ends by about October 21. Breeding. This hawk nests in a natural cavity in a tree, in a wood- pecker (usually Flicker) hole, or in a nesting box of the proper size. On the early date of March 20, 1913, a female was seen inspecting tree cavities at Westbrook, Cumberland County, and birds had returned to known nesting sites by April 3, 1904, and April 6, 1933, near Portland (Norton). On May 4, 1926, a pair was observed at Buxton, York County ; the female carried straw in her bill to the nesting tree where she passed it to the male who then took it into the cavity (Haven). It is likely that eggs are laid from early May to early June (but see below). Three to five, usually four, eggs make a clutch. Egg dates in Maine are: May 30, 1863, five eggs taken in the St. Croix valley (Boardman, 1907:96); June 1, 1891, five taken by Knight (1908b: 248), probably near Bangor; early June, 1885, four eggs taken at Lake Umbagog (Brewster, 1925: 363); and on June 21, 1913, three eggs in a nest at Holden, Penobscot County, which were slightly incubated when taken three days later (Eckstorm). In Iowa, incubation was found to require 28 and 29 days for different eggs in a clutch, and fledging about 25 or 26 days (Sherman, 1913 : 408, 416). A brood of young was out of the nest on July 1, 1942, at Berwick, York County (A. Perkins), which would indicate laying by very early April. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. This is a bird of open fields, orchards, meadows, and clear- ings in the woods, the population being greater on land converted to agriculture. Its characteristic habit of hovering in the air when in search of food sets it apart from the Pigeon Hawk and is reminiscent of the Osprey. In migration, the Sparrow Hawk population is not much greater along the coast, as is the case with the Pigeon Hawk; the former feeds mainly on insects, and the latter follows the coastal concentration of smaller birds upon which it feeds. Remarks. The Sparrow Hawk is the second hawk in point of num- bers in Maine, the Broad-wing being more numerous. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 161 Brewster (1925: 364) wrote: "To the best of my knowledge and belief the Sparrow Hawks of the Umbagog region are one and all guiltless of bird murder. I have found only grasshoppers in their stomachs and have never seen them stoop at anything save these or other insects, some of which are occasionally caught in the air, perhaps while flying at a considerable height, although most are picked up from the ground in grassy places." Of 14 specimens taken from April to October, probably within 25 miles of Lincoln, Penobscot County, Mendall (1944: 202) reported the following frequency of occurrence: insects (chiefly grasshoppers) in 8; spiders in 6, frogs in 2, snakes in 2, mice in 1, and a sparrow in 1. Wintering birds have been known to kill English Sparrows in the Port- land suburbs. Audubon (1834 : 249) reported, on authority of Theodore Lincoln, that Sparrow Hawks attacked Cliff Swallows while the latter were on their eggs, the hawks actually tearing open the covered mud nests and seizing the occupants. This was at Dennysville, Washington County. Samuels (1865: 389) reported four "newly laid" eggs of this hawk taken from a Crow's nest on June 11, 1864, in the Umbagog region. This is clearly erroneous as the Sparrow Hawk nests in cavities. Family TETRAONIDAE Capercailzie Tetrao urogallus urogallus Linnaeus Introduced, but not established. Four birds were liberated on March 29, 1896, at New Sweden, Aroostook County (Thomas, 1896). The birds were of Swedish stock. Cushnoc (1896), writing August 15 of that year, stated that they had vanished. Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix tetrix Linnaeus Introduced, but not established. Four females and three males, of Swedish stock, were liberated on March 29, 1896, at New Sweden, Aroostook County (Thomas, 1896). One was seen later in the spring, and one the following autumn, near the adjoining town of Caribou (Anon., 1896b). Allegedly they were heard calling after that (Grinnell, 1897), but this was the last heard of them. 162 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Canada Spruce Grouse Canachites canadensis canace (Linnaeus) Resident, varying from rare to rather common (subject to fluctua- tions), in northern Oxford, upper half of Franklin and Somerset, most of Piscataquis, uncultivated parts of Aroostook, upper two thirds of Penobscot, northeastern Hancock, and northern half of Washington Counties. Breeding. Nest data for Maine are : a nest, on a knoll under a small balsam tree near B Pond, Upton, Oxford County, was "made of small twigs, bark, moss, leaves and a few feathers of the bird herself" (Thayer, 1901) ; one, partially concealed, was sunk in Sphagnum at the base of a small spruce in a very small clearing in a dense black spruce bog near the north shore of Martin Pond in Township 17, Range 5, Aroostook County (Mendall); one, near Richardson Lake, Franklin County, was sunk "in the top of a little mound with no rock, log, or even tree-trunk" near it (Brewster, 1925: 285); and two nests, "simply hollows in the moss," were located "quite near each other, both under low spruces" (Hardy, 1910c: 49), the locality being unstated. Various writers have overstated the clutch size of the Spruce Grouse. Rand (1947b) tabulated data from various parts of the species' range (most being from Nova Scotia) and showed that the normal size is four to seven, perhaps rarely less, and occasionally ten to 13. In Maine, clutches probably are laid in May, and a second laid if the first is destroyed. A set of 11 eggs in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, was "heavily incubated" when taken on May 25 in Nova Scotia, indicating that laying, in this instance, began by very early May. Egg data for Maine are: one egg in the Upton nest, mentioned above, on May 13, 1901, three on the 15th, four on the 16th, none laid on the 17th (a rainy day), and the bird incubating six eggs when the set was taken on the 24th (Thayer, 1901); nine eggs "about the last of May" (Hardy, 1910c: 49); the Richardson Lake nest contained nine eggs when found on June 1, 1899 (Brewster, 1925: 285); a report of a nest containing five or six eggs, found by a river driver in early June in Oxford County (ibid. 284) ; a clutch of five indicated in the nest found by Mendall near Martin Pond; and a clutch, of six, incubation estim- ated at one week, taken June 14 of unstated year in Township 4, Range 11, Piscataquis County (W. Clayton). Incubation probably requires about 24 days. Brewster (1925: 278) reported receiving, in early June of unstated year, at Lake Umbagog, a female "with one of her chicks which could not have been more than four or five days old." On June 22, 1875, a female with "newly hatched PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 163 young" was seen near Cathance Lake, which lies in Cooper and in Plantation 14, Washington County (Smith). When Mendall found the nest at Martin Pond on July 22, 1944, he figured, from the appearance of the nest and shells, that the four eggs (a fifth was infertile) had hatched shortly after July 1. On July 10, 1945, Weston saw five broods of chicks, some of which could fly, near Sourdnahunk Lake, Piscata- quis County, and noted that the broods were small in numbers. On July 28, 1874, Brewster (1925: 279) saw, at Umbagog, a female with six young, "about as large as full-grown Bob-whites" and able to fly. The time required to reach flying age in this precocial species is un- known. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. Brewster's (ibid. 276-277) remarks on this bird at Lake Umbagog apply throughout the range of the bird in Maine: "For the most part the birds frequent dense, matted growths of cedar (i. e. arbor vitae), black spruce, and hackmatack (American larch), over- spreading, low-lying, flat, and more or less swampy lands bordering on sluggish streams or on semiopen bogs similar to those known as Muskegs in the far North. From such coverts they wander not infre- quently up neighboring hillsides to evergreen forests on still higher ground beyond, or perhaps into neglected pastures choked with inter- mingling young balsams, red spruces, and white spruces no more than eight or ten feet tall. Nor are they unknown to appear well out in rather wide upland clearings, where the only available cover con- sists of raspberry bushes, or even river- or brook-meadows, where it is furnished solely by rank grass. Ramblings, thus venturesome, are exceptional, of course, and undertaken I believe, at no seasons other than late summer or early autumn, when the lowly vegetation that clothes such perfectly treeless ground is most luxuriant, and also best supplied with berries or insects of various kinds; these Spruce Par- tridges devour eagerly whenever, and wherever, they can obtain them readily, although subsisting during the greater part of the year on a nearly unmixed diet of spruce and balsam spills [leaves], plucked mostly from branches at least fifteen or twenty feet above the ground." Hardy (in Bendire, 1892: 53) wrote: "They feed almost entirely on the needles of spruce and fir, also hackmatack and berries in summer. They show a preference for some fir trees over others, as I have seen them return to the same tree until it was nearly stripped. When disturbed, they always take to the trees, walking about in them, from one branch to another. . . When on the ground they scratch a great deal more than other Grouse do." In summary, it should be noted that this grouse does not dwell the year round in dense coniferous growth, but shows some preference — especially in summer — for borders or edges, or where areas of spruce 164 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology and tamarack adjoin open bogs and heaths. In late summer the birds often feed in even more open parts of this habitat, and on higher and drier ground, where insects and berries are plentiful. The species is more arboreal than the Ruffed Grouse. There are records of oc- currence up to 3,400 feet altitude on Mt. Katahdin (Palmer and Taber, 1946:305). Remarks. The Spruce Grouse formerly occupied all of Maine except perhaps most of York and parts of western Cumberland Counties. It is known to have been on the larger wooded islands. In 1876, it was still present in some numbers on Roque Island, off Jonesport, Washing- ton County (Longfellow, 1876). The last island record is perhaps that of the one seen on Mt. Desert Island on August 29, 1899 (Hallock, 1899). A straggler was taken near Portland in the fall of 1868 (J. A. Allen, 1870: 638), and a male at St. George, Knox County, in the early 1880's (Norton). The species was nearly exterminated around settled places rather early. Hardy and his daughter, Mrs. F. H. Eckstorm, noted eight occurrences for the Bangor-Brewer-Holden region from about 1850 to 1913, the two latest being for November, 1888, when one bird killed itself by flying against a house in Bangor, and in the fall of 1913, Paul Eckstorm caught a young male in a mink trap at Holden. Hardy (in Bendire, 1892: 53) wrote: "I have been over every part of this State where this bird is likely to be abundant, east from Penobscot, from the sea to the North Corner Monument, but I have always found the Canada Grouse very scarce everywhere. Five once and six at another time are the largest number I ever saw together. I have many times traveled a month, and sometimes two months constantly in the woods, where they ought to be, without seeing over one or two." Later, Hardy (1910c: 47) pointed out that, in his travels in the Maine woods for over 60 years, he had seen only about 50 birds, nearly one-third of which he had found "on a space not over six miles square, between the head waters of the Passadumkeag and Machias, when visiting it at intervals during some twenty years." He stated further that the bird was "fast decreasing," one reason being that so many persons visiting the woods killed anything they saw. The numbers of this species fluctuate drastically, as is the case with the Ruffed Grouse. x\t Upton, more Spruce Grouse were seen in 1890 than in any year since 1876 (C. B. S., 1890). This agrees with Brewster's statement (1925: 285) for the same region: "In 1889 they were more abundant than I have ever known them to be before or since. In 1897 only a few were reported." A recent record for central Oxford County is for a single bird seen on September 23, 1941, at Rumford Center (Mrs. C. A. Poole). There are no good data on PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 165 fluctuations for any other Maine locality, although reports in 1947 indicated that the population was perhaps near a peak in numbers in Somerset and Piscataquis Counties. High numbers there also were noted in 1948. Not only does this grouse fluctuate in numbers, but the over-all picture is one of a decreasing population in a range that has diminished in size. Two factors involved in this general decline are the smallness of broods and the notable unwariness of the species. Clutches are smaller than in the Ruffed Grouse. From the few data given above on broods, and from what I have learned from trappers and guides, it appears that broods seldom contain more than four to six chicks. So unwary are the birds that they can be caught by the neck with a noose at the end of a pole. Brewster (1925 : 278) discussed this practice at Umbagog. Beginning in 1915 the Spruce Grouse was protected by law except during an open season corresponding with that of the Ruffed Grouse (Norton, 1915b: 501). Its general decrease has been so steady, how- ever, that Aldous and Mendall (1940: 9) urged that "a strict closed season," effective immediately, be put on "this vanishing species." In addition to what has been reported under Ecology about food, the following data are of interest. Brewster (1925) reported these observations at Umbagog: a young bird, shot August 28, 1874, had its crop full of hackmatack needles ; a female, watched on May 24, 1879, was in a red spruce tree, eating the needles; three young, found at a grassy place and shot on September 11, 1888, had eaten "very many grasshoppers of various kinds and sizes, numerous ripe raspberries, a few leaves of Spiraea tomcntosa and (in one crop only) a few larch spills"; two, about half grown and killed in a bog on August 13, 1873, had eaten "raspberries, blueberries, checkerberries, and balsam buds as well as needles"; an adult female, shot on September 28, 1890, had eaten "fifty-one berries of Viburnum lentagot, some fragments of small mushrooms, and a few spills of the black spruce," and a young male in company with her, had eaten "thirteen Viburnum berries, uncounted pieces of mushrooms, and a few larch spills." Hardy (1910c: 48-49), reporting a male feeding in a spruce tree in a clearing, wrote: "He was in no haste and would often stop picking for a while. I should judge that he was there at least half an hour. . . It was evident that he had resorted to this tree for food for some time, as so many needles had been picked off that the foliage looked as thin as a juniper's does after the worms have eaten part of the needles." In Nova Scotia, tops of young spruces were placed in a large cage containing Spruce Grouse. "In gathering these spines from the twigs the bird makes a stroke nearly parallel with the branch on which they 166 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology grow, striking outward towards the end of the limb, gathering perhaps a half dozen leaves at a time. Then by a twisting movement of the head, the spines are partly broken and partly bitten off, leaving a small portion still in place on the twig. These movements are as rapid as a domestic fowl picking up corn" (Watson Bishop, 1914: 151). Two partially albino females have been taken, one at Houlton, Aroostook County (Deane, 1879a: 29), and the other recorded without locality (Hardy, 1910c: 49). Hardy twice (in Bendire, 1892:53; 1910c: 48) stated that males were greatly in excess of females in the Spruce Grouse population in the state. He may have been right, but it would seem more likely that males are noted more frequently because of their greater conspicuous- ness. Birds of both sexes are overlooked easily, however, for they will stand motionless when approached and one can pass by within a few feet without suspecting their presence. Persons interested in Maine accounts of the drumming and display of this species, which differs in numerous ways from that of the Ruffed Grouse, should consult J. G. Rich (1879), Penobscot (1878 and 1883), and Brewster (1925:282-283). Rich mentioned drumming in early autumn. In former years, when this bird was more plentiful in Hancock, Washington, and Aroostook Counties, it resorted regularly to the edges of heaths or barrens in late summer. The name for such places in those parts was pronounced "haith" and the Spruce Grouse was called, quite naturally, the "Haith" or "Heath" Hen. Uttall (1939) referred a specimen from Calais to his proposed new race, torridus. I agree with Rand (1948) in not considering this a valid race. Canada Ruffed Grouse Bonasa umbellus togata (Linnaeus) Resident, varying from uncommon to very common (subject to fluctuations), throughout, including larger inshore islands. Breeding. The nest is a mere depression in the ground, often beside a stump or fallen log, but sometimes in a very exposed and unshaded site. A few leaves are added before laying, and the nest-building instinct persists well into incubation. Laying may begin as early as April 20, but occurs more commonly the first week in May. On May 2, 1921, a nest with 13 eggs was found at Turner, Androscoggin County (Mrs. C. A. Poole). Several nests containing six, eight, and even 11 eggs have been found by May 4. Most clutches are completed by May 15, and later ones are probably second layings after the first were destroyed. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 167 "Of the Ruffed Grouse nests, about 40, that I have seen in Maine, the eggs varied in number from six to 13. I am not sure the set of six was complete as it was destroyed later. I do have a record of one com- plete at seven. The average size of the whole series was 11 eggs per nest" (Gross). A nest with 15 eggs was found on May 21, 1881, at Bucksport, Hancock County, by Buker (1881a). On the late date of August 5, 1917, a grouse was found on a nest containing 18 eggs at Scarborough (Smith). This may have been the result of two birds laying in the same nest. A newspaper report, cited by Anon. (1884), mentioned a grouse and a domestic fowl laying in the same nest in a pasture at Damariscotta, Lincoln County, there being 12 grouse eggs and eight hen eggs, with both birds incubating at the same time. Incubation, by the female, requires 24 days. Brewster (1925: 302) believed that, although the male might copulate with more than one female in a season, he "lays claim to only one" and "may continue to be rather attentive to her while she is sitting on her eggs, besides shar- ing with her to some extent the care of the young for a week or two after they have left the nest which happens, of course, almost as soon as they are hatched." The young have partly grown flight feathers and are capable of making short flights when they are less than a quarter the size of adults, and still partly in yellowish natal down. The earliest record at hand for a brood of flying young is Norton's for June 17, 1893, at Westbrook, Cumberland County. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. The Ruffed Grouse is primarily a bird of dry woodlands of mixed growth. The characteristic habitat is composed of second- growth trees and open clearings. Old fields and orchards often are visited for feeding, and conifers are sought mainly for shelter. In late fall, horn-like fringes, which are modified scales, grow from the sides of the toes, and facilitate traveling in the snow. For this reason, they are called 'snowshoes.' They are shed in April. Sometimes the grouse dive into soft snow for shelter and occasionally are buried there when a crust forms on the surface. Locke (1886) and several others have reported finding birds that had perished, probably from starvation, when imprisoned under a crust of frozen snow. The Ruffed Grouse is somewhat gregarious except during the breeding season. Fluctuations. This grouse is subject to great fluctuations. Near centers of human population in much of southern Maine, a decreasing number of birds is involved in both the maxima and minima of these fluctuations. Although data are far from satisfactory, there is evidence indicating that population peaks occurred about as follows, with those years starred in which peaks seem to have been limited to part of the state: 1874, about 1881, about 1888, 1893 or 1894, 1905, about 1915, 1923, 1929 or soon after, *1939, *1943, approaching a peak in *1947. 168 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology The lowest numbers, listed in the same fashion, occurred in: 1876, *1882, 1896, and poor recovery before a drop in 1902, 1907, 1918, about 1924, *1938, about 1944 in northern and 1945 in eastern Maine. This list of peaks and low points, superseding an earlier one (Palmer, 1948), is based on the information in the following five paragraphs. In 1873, grouse were notably plentiful in the vicinity of Portland (F., 1873), and in late 1874, were at a high level in that region (Mac, 1874) and in the Calais region (Boardman, 1874a). A low point in Franklin County in the winter of 1876-77 was blamed on "winter killing" by F. C. Barker (1879), who reported that they were re- covering in 1879. The population was high in the northern half of the state in late 1880 (Fitch, 1880; E. M. G., 1880). There was good shooting in Franklin County in 1881, and many birds reportedly survived the winter of 1881-82 there (J. W. T., 1882). In 1882, they were scarce about Portland, in the Rangeley region of Franklin County, and in the Moosehead region (Austin, 1885: 487). In the fall of 1884 they were scarce in northern Maine and in Washington County, but plentiful in southern Maine, according to Special (1884), but other reports for this year were somewhat at variance with this one. Carpenter (1886b: 178), for example, reported that the species was common in the Dead River region of Franklin County where he visited in the years 1883, 1884, and 1885. Grouse were plentiful in Oxford County in late 1888 (J. G. Rich, 1888), and in the fall of 1893 (J. G. Rich, 1893b). In the fall of 1894, they were plentiful in Aroostook County (LaRue, 1894). For the fall of 1896, Hardy (1896a) wrote: "In over fifty years of gunning I have never known ruffed grouse so scarce over so large a part of our state." Hardy was acquainted particularly with the Penobscot drainage and all of Maine east and north of it. Grouse were very scarce in the Moosehead region in 1896 (N. F. Tufts, 1897), and in Waldo County in 1897 (Anon., 1898a). Various reports indicated an unusually slow recovery after the major 1896 slump. Very low numbers continued to at least the summer of 1899, when Hardy (1899b) saw few birds. On Mt. Desert Island, however, Hallock (1899) reported that grouse were plentiful in the summer of 1899. By 1901, there were conflicting reports, indicating local recovery and large areas remaining where grouse continued to be scarce. In 1902, they were scarce at Readfield, Kennebec County (E. A. M., 1902), and at Cornish, York County (Templar, 1903). A high level of numbers was reached in 1905 in southwestern Maine (Walter Rich, 1907b: 91), but dropped in 1906 and went still lower in 1907. This decrease was widespread. Grouse were scarce at Brewer in late 1907 (E. Gross, 1908). In 1908 the population was reported as increasing PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 1(59 at Rockland, Knox County (Wight, 1908), but in the winter of 1908-09 they were reported "to be found in shockingly diminished numbers" at Cornish (Woodbury, 1909). Published data for subsequent years are meager, although there are unpublished reports from quite a few persons. The species was scarce in Cumberland County in 1916 (Norton), but the lowest point over much of the state, including southwestern Maine, was reached in 1918 (various observers). Fair recovery was noted by 1922 (Norton, 1922b : 410). The next peak apparently came in 1923 before the population had recovered greatly, and was followed in 1924 or 1925 by another drop. The next data are from questionnaires returned to A. O. Gross (1930:8), which added up as follows: in 1927, thirteen reports of scarce and 20 of normal or plentiful; in 1928, ten of scarce, eight of normal, and 24 of plentiful; in 1929, five of scarce, three of normal, and 43 of plentiful. This would indicate a peak or an approach to one in 1929, but data are lacking for the next few years. There was a scarcity in Cumberland and Aroostook Counties in 1937 (Norton), and in Penobscot County from 1936 to 1938, according to Mendall, who also supplied the following data. There was a high population in central Penobscot County (and in much of northern Maine) from 1941 to 1943, and a gradual decline in central Penobscot County after the latter year. Meanwhile, in Washington and Hancock Counties, there was a high population in 1938 and 1939, followed by a great decline in 1940, then a gradual one, reaching a low point in 1945, and some recovery since. From inadequate data it appears that grouse in western and southern Maine were approaching a population peak in 1947. The cause or causes of these violent fluctuations in numbers are not understood. The various studies of the diseases and parasites of the species have not shed much light on the problem. Remarks. A great many grouse formerly were snared and shipped out of the state for sale to hotels. Wheeler (1883) stated that, a few years earlier, he had seen "some five hundred" grouse stored at one time in a back room in a village store, awaiting shipment, and that not one of these had been killed with a gun. Another report (Anon., 1883) mentioned a barrel, marked "potatoes," and a' trunk both full of grouse shipped to Boston. Numerous other reports of this nature have appeared in print. Anyone who doubts that large numbers of grouse could be shot easily in former years should read Brewster's (1925: 288- 292) account of hunting them at Lake Umbagog. In one instance he shot six birds (an entire covey) and none flew during the shooting and were, in fact, but slightly disturbed as one after another was killed. Some statistics on the number of grouse shot, in former years, are as 170 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology follows : 60 birds shot by two men, from a buggy, riding from Bangor to Moosehead Lake (Thoreau, 1864: 88) ; 427 shot by Loring, mostly in Cumberland County, from 1842 to 1854, 240 shot by Rogers, in the same region, from 1865 to 1902, and 313 shot by Pillsbury, from 1891 to 1912; "at least fifty" annually shot by Hardy (1910b), or a total of about 2,000 for the years when he made trips to the woods; 125 birds reportedly shot by one person in the fall of 1883, at Norway, Oxford County (Jeems, 1884); and 41 shot by 69 men, in a side hunt, on October 31, 1890, at Farmington, Franklin County (Flyrnt, 1890). The food habits of the Ruffed Grouse have been studied extensively in Maine. Since there is not space to discuss this matter here, the reader is referred especially to Hardy (in Bendire, 1892: 66), Brewster (1925: 293-294), Gross (1928b: 4-7)— which is not confined to Maine birds, Kittams (1943), and C. P. Brown (1946). The last is especially valuable because it lists food by seasons and by types of habitat. In former years, and in years when grouse were numerous, the birds reportedly did some damage by eating the buds of apple trees. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1874, 3: 452) reported grouse, in Maine, "thus occasionally causing a serious injury to the prospective harvest." Self tamed grouse have been reported occasionally for many years. Such a bird near Brunswick, Cumberland County, while being photo- graphed, would come so close to the photographer that the man was obliged to hold the bird off with his foot, and, as a consequence, some of the pictures showed not only the grouse but also the shoe of the photographer. Such birds, if confined, seldom live more than a few weeks. There are only a few instances where grouse have been liberated for restocking an area. One of these was in 1874 when a few were placed on Roque Island, off Jonesport, Washington County; they were re- ported increasing in numbers two years later (Longfellow, 1876). Although the typical race umbelkcs often has been recorded as occur- ring in Maine, such reports are erroneous and based on the fact that, in some localities, brown-phase birds are more numerous than gray ones. The former are decidedly more numerous in southwestern coun- ties. A few birds can hardly be called brown as they really are reddish or copper colored. On December 20, 1885, Hardy killed a male grouse in Penobscot County which was copper colored, including even the ruffs and subterminal tail band. The specimen was mutilated too badly to be saved, but the ruffs and tail were sent to William Brewster. Most albinistic specimens are of a light tan color and show faint markings, rather than exhibiting true albinism. Hardy (1884) long ago noted that there is variation in the number of tail feathers in this species. Males usually have 20 and females 16, but there is variation in both sexes. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 171 On the average, male grouse are larger and heavier than females. Some figures, based mostly on New England birds, were given by Gross (1928b: 7-8) as follows: a hundred males averaged 20.81 ounces, a hundred females, 17.92; males averaged 17.7 inches in length, and females 16.0. The heaviest bird, a male, weighed 25.64 ounces, and (as stated in another paper) came from Acadia National Park on Mt. Desert Island. Hardy (1910b), who had weighed a great many of the approximate 2,000 grouse he had shot, gave 31 and 32 ounces as the heaviest weights he had noted, and 22 and 23^ inches as the greatest lengths. The drumming of the cock grouse is a well known sound to most persons. This is done mostly in spring, and again for a period during warm days in early fall. It may occur during warm weather at any time; Hardy (in Bendire, 1892: 66) stated that he had heard grouse drumming every month in the year. Formerly there was a superstition in parts of Maine that if a grouse came to a house where there was a sick person, and the bird was killed and a broth made for the sick person, a cure would be effected immedi- ately. "The Partridge is larger than ours, white flesht, but very dry, they are indeed a sort of Partridges called Grooses" (Josselyn, 1674; 1865b: 78). Many questionable statements have been made regarding this bird in Maine. For example, Samuels (1867: 390) mentioned eggs which a collector declared were found in a Crow's nest in a tall pine, and Hardy (1905) reported seeing a cock bird in charge of a brood. Canadian Willow Ptarmigan Lagopus lagopus albus (Gmelin) One record. A male in winter plumage was shot on April 23, 1892, at Kenduskeag, Penobscot County, and acquired by Harry Merrill of Bangor (Webster, 1892a; Merrill, 1892b). Remarks. Audubon (1834: 528) mentioned this bird as occurring in Maine. No doubt this report, generally believed to be erroneous, furnished the basis for inclusion of this bird in the Maine fauna by Dekay in 1844, Hitchbock in 1862, Verrill in 1862, and Coues in 1868. Smith (1882-83:224) wrote: "Mr. Audubon has stated that he 'felt assured it exists in Maine . . .' And further states that 'Theodore Lincoln, Esq., of Dennysville, in Maine, shot seven one day, not many miles from that village.' In regard to these statements, Mr. Lincoln has informed me that he could not remember ever finding the ptarmi- 172 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology gan in Maine, and that 'probably Mr. Audubon referred to those shot further North.' "Mr. Lincoln speaks of the Canada Grouse ... as 'spotted grouse,' and it is my belief that the incident of the seven birds shot in one day near Dennysville, Me., related by Mr. Audubon, was probably refer- able to the 'spotted' or Canada grouse." Heath Hen Tympanuchus cupido cupido (Linnaeus) An extinct bird whose occurrence as far north as Maine is hypo- thetical. This bird was listed for Maine first by Bonaparte (1826: 127) in his Synopsis without giving any particulars as to locality or basis for its inclusion in the recorded fauna of the state. In his researches into the history of this bird, Gross (1928a: 495-496) was unable to find data either to substantiate or discredit Bonaparte's report. Audubon (1834: 492) mentioned this bird as occurring on Mt. Desert Island and on a certain barren tract "lying not far from the famed Mar's Hill" in Aroostook County. No record of introduction of game birds is known for that period. A bird occurring about the edges of 'heaths' or 'barrens' in eastern Maine, and locally known as "Heath Hen," was the Spruce Grouse. All writers' inclusion of Maine in the range of the Heath Hen, from DeKay (1844) on, appear to be based on Audubon. The scrub oak of York, northwestern Cumberland, and southern Oxford Counties may have been suitable habitat for the Heath Hen, but no evidence that it ever occurred there is known to exist. Prairie Chicken Tympanuchus cupido subsp. Introduced but not established. There is mention of protection of "Pinnated Grouse" in Acts and Resolves of the 55th (1876) and 57th (1878) Maine Legislatures. "We understand that in Maine a lot of pinnated grouse were turned out a few years ago and protected by a three or four years close season. Contrary to the predictions expressed by many people these birds flourished and increased, and this autumn, we are told, one gentleman killed thirty or forty of them. There seems to be no doubt that the pinnated grouse might do almost as well anywhere on the Atlantic coast. But they must be protected for a while" (Grinnell, 1888). PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 173 Remarks. I have little doubt that an introduction was tried, but Grinnell's report probably was exaggerated unintentionally. A decade later, Hardy (1898), who was inclined to make positive statements without too much knowledge of the facts, wrote as follows in criticizing the game laws: "There is no record of a pinnated grouse having ever been taken in Maine. There is a law against shooting them, passed through the ignorance of our legislators, but the bird has never been taken in Maine." Family PHASIANIDAE Red-legged Partridge Alectoris graeca subsp. Recently introduced at one locality and maintained by human aid. In a letter of March 28, 1947, Mr. George Stobie, Commissioner of Inland Fisheries and Game, stated that Mr. Guy Gannett had liber- ated some of these birds "at his summer home at Moosehead Lake." It was Stobie's belief that the birds never left the place, but stayed close by to be fed. Common Partridge Perdix perdix perdix (Linnaeus) Introduced, but not permanently established. Records. Fifty pairs were secured by the Cumberland County Fish and Game Protective Association and liberated at the following points near Portland in 1909: 18 pairs at Falmouth, 12 at Deering Center, 12 at Cape Elizabeth, and eight at Scarborough. At the last two places the birds survived and bred successfully until 1912 or later. In the Portland Society of Natural History are skins of two small chicks. These came from Scarborough, one having hatched on July 17, the other on the 22nd, in 1922, and were skinned by Ruthven Deane. In 1913, nineteen pairs were liberated about Portland and an equal number on Mt. Desert Island. The winters of 1917 and 1920 were seasons of exceptionally heavy snowfalls and, as a result, the number of these birds was steadily depleted. A few were reported at Cape Elizabeth as late as 1925. The history of the Mt. Desert birds, as re- ported in the Kennebec Journal (Feb. 6, 1925), is parallel to that of the others. On April 15, 1942, Mendall, acting for the Department of Inland Fisheries and Game, liberated 15 males and 14 females at Fort Fair- 174 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology field, Aroostook County. Several were seen throughout the following summer and autumn. A single bird was seen on January 31, 1943, in an alder swale near the point of release. In February, during a period of severe cold and deep snows, one came into a farmyard about a mile from the point of release; it remained in the vicinity for over a week, during which time it often went into a barn, and when caught, was found to be in good flesh and flew readily upon being released; it disappeared when the weather became milder. These facts were supplied by Mendall. Remarks. On June 2, 1917, a resident of Cape Elizabeth told Norton that this partridge had been very destructive to young crops there, especially peas and cabbages. This is not surprising in view of its known liking for green food in spring in parts of its normal range. European Migratory Quail Coturnix coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus) Introduced, but not permanently established. Records. Birds were imported from Italy and released in Maine and in New Brunswick, 100 being liberated in 1879 and 2,600 in 1880. Purchased by private subscription, the birds were liberated, in lots ranging from 15 to 75, at the following places: Kennebunk and Saco in York County, near Portland, Brunswick, and Bridgton in Cumber- land County, Bath, Richmond, and Bowdoinham in Sagadahoc County, Auburn and Lewiston in Androscoggin County, Norway in Oxford County, Augusta in Kennebec County, Wiscassett in Lincoln County, Rockland in Knox County, Winterport in Waldo County, Bangor in Penobscot County, and at St. Stephen, New Brunswick. They were reported to have nested well in widely separated sections (Smith, 1880a). The few reported present in 1881, however, probably were wanderers from an introduction of 125 made that year by James Wight (1888) near Rockland. There is a rather inconclusive report of a few birds, said to have been of this species, in York and Cumberland Counties in 1886 (in Portland Press, Nov. 13, 1886, from Kennebunk Star). Remarks. Full accounts of the attempts to establish this bird in Maine have been printed by Smith and Wight, cited above, also by Smith (1880b: 36-41; 1882a; 1882-83: 44). In Italy a southerly fall migration takes these birds over open water to their winter range in Africa. Failure of the experiments in Maine was attributed by some people (on no factual data) to a persistence of this migratory instinct which, considering the geography of the state, would have resulted in exhaustion and death of the birds at sea. palmer: maine birds 175 Bob-white Colinus virginianus subsp. Occasional invader (and resident) in southwestern parts of the state, and has been introduced at various places, but never permanently established in Maine. Breeding. No nesting data for wild birds are at hand, but when resident for a period it may nest rarely. For southern New England, Forbush (1927: 4) wrote that the nest usually was a hollow lined with some grass or other vegetable material, usually concealed in grass or a brushy place, that 10 to 17 eggs usually were laid from late May to autumn and incubated 23 to 24 days, mainly by the female. One brood is raised yearly. History. Contrary to statements made by G. M. Allen (1909: 90), Forbush' (1910:255; 1912:308; 1927:4), Aldrich (1946:498), and others, this bird never was common or permanent in Maine. Indeed, discerning early writers mentioned it as possibly very rare or unknown to them. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1874, 3:470) admitted the species to the fauna of Maine, but only provisionally. A careful student, H. A. Purdie (1877: 15) found no positive evidence of the bird's occurrence in the state. At various times the Bob-white has been brought into the state in small numbers. These introductions were made by individual en- thusiasts, without such concerted action as attended the efforts to establish the Common Partridge, the Migratory Quail, and the Pheasant. The liberated birds persisted for a season or two in their new environment, but could not survive the winters of heavy snowfall. Among all records of occurrence of this bird, it is impossible to dis- tinguish between natural invaders, believed to be occasional, and introduced birds and their progeny. James Wight (1881) reported that four pairs, liberated atVinalhaven, Knox County, in 1880, had bred, and, he hoped, with human aid, would survive the winter. Everett Smith (1882-83 : 44) reported that several unsuccessful efforts to establish the species had been made in Maine prior to 1883. When two birds were shot at Morrill's Corner, near Portland, in late October, 1886, their occurrence there was re- garded as a hopeful sign (in Portland Daily Press, Oct. 30, 1886). N. C. Brown pointed out, however, that just prior to this occasion, several liberations had been made in the vicinity. Another introduction was made in Cumberland County in 1887, according to Smith (1887), who stated that some were being wintered in barns and others outdoors. That same winter a local newspaper reported that "about twenty were seen near the Two Lights on Cape 176 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Elizabeth." In Penobscot County, "some were let loose in Hermon" in 1894, where they were reported as breeding for "several seasons, but when not tended through the winter, they all perished" (Knight, 1908b: 196). Either there was an earlier introduction in the vicinity of Hermon or Knight gave the wrong date, for on January 10, 1887, Mrs. F. H. Eckstorm noted in her daily journal: "I just saw a quail (C. virginianus) which was picked up frozen in Hermon. Eight more were seen flying." Several times during the summer of 1896, Everett Johnson saw a Bob-white near East Hebron in southwestern Oxford County (Knight, 1898c). Mead (1901 : 19) reported one heard calling at North Bridgton in northern Cumberland County, about 20 miles west southwest of East Hebron, in June, 1896. In the spring of 1897, six birds were liberated on Maneskootuk, an island in Rangeley Lake, Franklin County (Dickson, 1898). Some bred there and were seen as late as April 15, 1898. One was seen at Auburn, Androscoggin County, in the spring of 1897 (Norton). Mead (1901 : 19) reported one heard on June 18, 1897, and saw one on July 6, at North Bridgton. Mr. H. P. Libby reported that a Bob-white was seen during June and July, and about a dozen in October, 1897, at Eliot, York County (Knight, 1898c). In 1898, twelve birds were brought from Pennsylvania and liberated on Jewell's Island in Casco Bay. Some of them remained on the island and, with human aid, wintered there. They were seen in the following spring by Swain (1904d). In September of 1899, a male was reported seen and heard in Unity, Waldo County (Soule, 1902). It probably was a member or descendant of those liberated at Hermon. During the summer of 1901, one was heard at Westbrook, Cumber- land County (W. Hadlock). The location was only 12 miles from Jewell's Island. In 1902, one was heard again in Westbrook on July 19 and 22 (Norton). That fall, a taxidermist, John Lord, received eight birds shot in the vicinity of Portland. It is probable that all these birds were from the Jewell's Island stock. It appears that an invasion from the southwest was taking place during the latter 1890's, but the severe winter of 1903-04 exterminated most of these birds. The occurrence at Eliot, mentioned above, very likely was a part of this invasion. Noble (1904c) reported the occur- rence of this species at several places in southwestern Maine in the fall of 1902, and even more in 1903. He later (1904f) referred to the subject and mentioned that a "small flock" perished during the winter of 1903- 04 at Kennebunk, York County. A mounted specimen from the collec- tion of W. A. Barry of Kennebunk, now in the collection of the Port- land Society of Natural History, may be one of these birds. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 177 In 1903, a small flock was observed by I. W. and E. B. Pillsbury, at Old Orchard, York County. They refrained from shooting the birds, hoping for an increase in numbers in another year, but the birds perished that same severe season. A single bird, reported heard on June 24, 1904, at Westbrook, about 12 miles from Old Orchard, may have been a survivor (Norton). The Bob-white seems to have been absent from Maine for many years after 1904. One was heard calling in the summer of 1930, near Eliot (R. Brooks). In 1932, "after many years of absence this bird appeared in Berwick," York County, where a "flock" was seen, and in 1933, one was heard at the same locality (A. Perkins, 1935). In January of 1934, a male was seen at Windham, Cumberland County, by two reliable observers (Norton) . One was heard in Berwick in late July, 1942 (A. Perkins). Remarks. I have not used a trinomial scientific name for the Bob- white since those occurring in the state are either native northeastern stock or introduced birds or hybrids of these. Josselyn (1672; 1865a: 47) stated that there were no quails in New England. Whether this keen Englishman would have recognized our Bob-white as "quail," and whether he referred to Scarborough only (where he lived for some years), or to Massachusetts (where he visited), are points of conjecture. Pheasant Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus Resident, having spread to Maine from birds introduced into Massachusetts, introduced into at least eleven Maine counties, and restocked annually in various places; dependent o?i man for survival during severe winters. Breeding. Data from outside of Maine indicate that five to 20 (usually about 12) eggs are laid in a shallow, poorly constructed nest made in a depression in the ground by the hen. Incubation, by the hen, begins when the clutch is completed and requires 23 to 25 days. The young fly when shortly under two weeks of age. They accompany the hen for about two months, the cock rarely joining the family during the earlier part of this period. Adult weight is attained in about 20 weeks. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. The Pheasant is a farmland bird, seeking cover in thickets, copses, swamps, hedges, patches of tall weeds, and small groves of trees where there is undergrowth. Many nests are in grassy situations, such as hayfields, and here face the hazard of being disturbed by early mowing. Suitable spots for dust baths are resorted to often. In late 178 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology winter and spring the birds are forced into the open a great deal in order to secure food and are then particularly vulnerable to certain predators. If snows are deep, it is necessary to provide food for them that they may survive (Aldous and Mendall, 1940: 11). On December 7, 1940, when there was a foot of snow on the ground, a cock was observed eating frozen apples in a tree at Orrington, Penobscot County (Eckstorm). History. Following the liberation of Pheasants in Massachusetts in 1894, stragglers were reported in New Hampshire and occasionally about Kittery in York County. Soon they were reported regularly at the latter place. A cock bird, mistaken for a hawk, was shot on Novem- ber 5, 1912, in a Portland suburb. It was thought to have been a straggler from York County. From that time on, there were frequent reports of Pheasants in the Portland region. In the summer of 1918, these birds were rather numerous at Kittery and somewhat trouble- some to gardeners in that vicinity. In the Portland region, birds are known to have nested as early as 1921. The first liberation in Maine for which I have data occurred in 1897. A few were liberated by C. F. Gordon at Searsport, Waldo County, and were said to have hatched 12 young that year (Rowe, 1897). The same spring, four were liberated on Maneskootuk Island in Rangeley Lake, Franklin County; they hatched young, but the season was unusually wet and all were thought to have died (Dickson, 1898). In 1930, the E. I. DuPont Company distributed Pheasant eggs to anyone wishing to hatch, raise, and liberate the birds. Nearly 2,000 eggs were distributed in the vicinity of Portland, and others elsewhere in the state. Although the hatchability of the eggs was poor, several hundred birds were raised and liberated in Cumberland County and elsewhere. By 1931, birds had been liberated in coastal counties as far east as Calais, as well as at inland points. According to newspaper reports, the state Department of Inland Fisheries and Game collabo- rated with local sportsmen in the work of distributing and liberating the birds. Starting with 185 Pheasants in the spring of 1933, the state game farm at Dry Mills, Cumberland County, reportedly had raised and liberated 9,000 Pheasants by late 1935, in southern counties. There was a four-day open season, November 11 to 15, 1938, in all or parts of Cumberland, Kennebec, Lincoln, Sagadahoc, Waldo, and York Counties. The bag limit was two per day and four per season. A news- paper report gave an "estimated" 3,000 birds shot. The Pheasant was introduced on Monhegan in the late 1930's and subsequently nested there (W. Taylor). Short open seasons have continued. At least 9,000 birds were PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 179 reported to have been liberated in 11 counties in 1941. On March 28, 1947, Mr. George Stobie, Commissioner of Inland Fisheries and Game, stated in a letter that 6,000 to 9,000 birds were being released annually, the purpose of such releases being to reduce hunting pressure on the Ruffed Grouse, which, he believed, was being accomplished. All birds released to 1945 were banded and the shooting of many unhanded birds indicated considerable natural reproduction, he stated. According to press statements, over 15,000 Pheasants were liberated in the state in 1947. Although formerly birds were released as far north as several Aroostook County localities, they now are liberated mainly in coastal areas. Family MELEAGRIDIDAE Eastern Turkey Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot Extirpated; in colonial times, a resident in York and parts of Oxford and Cumberland Counties. History. Although Champlain and John Smith mentioned this bird in accounts of voyages to New England, their remarks are indefinite in respect to geographical localities and do not warrant inclusion of their writings as sources of Maine records. The Norridgewock Abnaki word for the turkey was nahame, plural nahamak (Rasles, 1833: 383), and essentially the same word, which may be translated as "gobbling," occurred in the vocabulary of certain other Indians, as shown by Speck (1921 : 357). John Josselyn, who spent July, 1638 to September, 1639, and August, 1663 to August, 1671, at Black Point (now part of Scarborough), stated (1672; 1865a: 42) that "out of my personal ex- perimental knowledge I can assure you, that I have eaten my share of a Turkie Cock, that when he was pull'd and garbidg'd, weighed thirty pound; and I have also seen threescore broods of young Turkies on the side of a marsh, sunning of themselves in a morning betimes, but this was thirty years since, the English and the Indians having now de- stroyed the breed, so that 'tis very rare to meet with a wild Turkie in the Woods ; But some of the English bring up great store of the wild kind, which remain about their Houses as tame as ours in England." Later (1674; 1865b: 78), he stated that one must not give Turkey chicks water if one would keep them alive, reiterated that Turkeys were "excellent meat," especially a capon, and added that Indian women wove coats of Turkey feathers for their children. 180 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Apparently this bird continued to exist on the scrub oak plains to a later time. Williamson (1832: 150) reported that some kinds of birds "which are common in other parts of New-England are seldom here; particularly the wild Turkey. A few, however, have been shot in the western parts of this State." Audubon (1839: 559) stated that "some" were still found in Maine, but he may have gotten his data from Williamson or some other indirect source. Remarks. In August, 1880, a "portion of the tarsus of a wild turkey" was found in an Indian shellheap on the eastern side of Mt. Desert Island (Townsend, 1881). In a letter to Norton, dated January 13, 1941, the late Glover Allen stated: "I do not know of any char- acters that will distinguish the tarsal bone of the wild from that of the domestic turkey, although, since the latter is believed to have been derived from Mexican birds it is possible that a series would show a slight size difference. It seems rather doubtful if the Wild Turkey ever reached Mt. Desert naturally, though it might easily have been taken there by aborigines from slightly farther south. If it occurred naturally, we ought to find more bones, but I have never seen any in a large amount of material examined." Another fact to be considered is that Indians evidently added 'kitchen' refuse to the heaps after white men were on the same shores, and it is possible that part of a bone of a domesticated turkey might occur in much the same manner as have pig bones which have been found in a number of heaps. Tyson and Bond (1941 : 58) stated that the bone in question "very likely was that of a domestic bird (Norton)." In 1942, Norton in- formed me that he had not so stated, but had indicated that it might fall within the range of variation of that of the domestic bird. Although an animal name, as applied to a geographical site, often indicates the former presence of that animal, such places as Turkey Cove and Turkey Point in St. George, Kriox County, do not indicate necessarily that the bird occurred there. The coniferous forest en- vironment was unsuited to the Turkey. Furthermore, in colonial times in Maine, the word "turkey" was used in various ways — especially as nicknames for persons who were slow-witted or who had many progeny. "Turkey-headed" expresses one of these ideas. The accomplished historian, Cyrus Eaton (1851), made no mention of turkeys in the region where Turkey Cove lies, nor did James Rosier (1605), who visited that section. Turkeytail Lake, west of Millinocket in Penobscot County, is a somewhat fan-shaped body of water. The reader is referred to G. M. Allen (1921) for a history of the extirpation of this bird from New England. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 181 Family GRUIDAE Cranes Grus spp. Extirpated. At the time of the early voyagers, cranes appear to have been fairly common on the Atlantic slope. One species, at least, occurred northeast to Nova Scotia, and may have been a rare summer resident in Maine. The few Maine records of cranes are entirely lacking in the matter of specific characters and must, therefore, remain hypothetical as to species. James Rosier, a "Gentleman employed in the voyage" of George Waymouth, who was among the Georges Islands, Knox County, from May 19 to June 16, 1605, wrote (1605; 1887: 103) the following two paragraphs : "Upon this Hand [? Aliens Island], as also upon the former [Mon- hegan], we found (at our first coming to shore) where fire had beene made: and about the place were very great egge shelles bigger than goose egges, fish bones, and as we judged, the bones of some beast. "Here we espied Cranes stalking on the shore of a little Hand adjoyning [? Benner Island]; where we after saw they used to breed." Farther on (ibid. 159) he gave a list of birds in "A Briefe Note of what Profits we saw the Country yeeld in the small time of our stay there." These included Eagles, Hernshawes [herons], Cranes, Ducks great, Geese, Swannes, Penguins [Great Auks], Crowes, Sharks [cormorants], Ravens, Mewes [Gulls], and Turtle Doves [Passenger Pigeons]. There can be little doubt that Rosier correctly identified the cranes since he distinguished between them and herons. It is impossible, however, to ascertain whether "they used to breed," for we cannot be sure that he was familiar with ground nests of cranes or whether he mistook the tree nests of herons. As for the "very great egge shelles bigger than goose egges," there are three birds whose eggs would fit this description, and from what we know of swans in Maine, it seems safe to eliminate them, thus leaving only cranes and the Great Auk to consider. Forbush (1912:484) believed that the eggs probably were those of a crane, but one cannot safely rule out the possibility of their having been those of the Great Auk. It can be proven that the latter birds were common in our waters in summer, and if they nested at Monhegan where Rosier (1605; 1887: 95) found "much fowle of divers kinds" breeding upon the shores and rocks, Indians, on their way to the mainland, could well have carried the eggs to the inner island and eaten them there. We cannot positively identify the eggs, 182 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology however, nor accept unquestioningly Rosier's statement that cranes used to breed. Levett (1628; 1847: 82) mentioned "crane" among birds eaten in the winter of 1623-24 at what is now Saco, York County. He is one of several early writers who mentioned cranes but not herons, thus leaving room for doubt as to which kind of bird actually was involved. Like Rosier, Josselyn distinguished between cranes and herons. In his list of birds occurring in what is now Scarborough, Josselyn (1674; 1865b: 79) listed first among the waterfowl "Hookers or wild-Swans, Cranes," and, in the same paragraph in a list of lesser waterfowl, he included "Herons" and "grey Bitterns." In his somewhat garbled list, Williamson (1832: 145) mentioned not only a white "Stork," but also "Crane," the latter, under the name Ardea Canadensis, described as being of a "lead colour," but there are no particulars about occurrence or how he came to include these in his list. Ganong (1910: 219-220), in an excellent paper summarizing much natural history of the early voyagers 'down east' beyond our borders, pointed out that Lescarbot in 1612, Denys in 1672, and Champlain in the early 1600's, mentioned Grue or Grue' (crane, Fr.) and herons. Ganong reasoned that, when early explorers mentioned both cranes and herons, the former were bitterns! His basis for this conclusion was that the crane of Europe "has no representatives" in eastern Canada; in other words, he seems not to have been aware that true cranes once existed in the northeast. Two recent writers on Denys' birds, in the Auk, omit this subject entirely. In his Indian-French dictionary of the Norridgewock Abnakis, Father Rasles (1833:383) defined Taregan, plural Taregak, as Grue; he also (p. 384) gave Kasks for heron, and Amskame?iess for bittern ("oiseau qui regarde le soleil"). I have taken up the matter of cranes vs. herons in Algonkian dictionaries with Mr. William B. Cabot of Boston. Our joint findings point to the fact that a large bird other than the Great Blue Heron was recognized, but native words were recorded so poorly, often by persons having little knowledge of natural history, that the distinction between crane and heron seems less clear in the dictionaries than it probably was with the Indians. There seems to be no mention of crane bones in the literature on New England shellheaps. Much material from these heaps has not been critically studied, however, and so unexpected an object as a crane bone might easily have been overlooked or misidentified. It seems possible that, in early times, Grus canadensis may have nested in the northeast, and probably that part of a more northerly nesting population followed a migration route that included northern New England and points farther 'down east.' PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 183 Family RALLIDAE Northern King Rail Rallus elegans elegans Audubon Rare visitant (August 8-December 17), records for Cumberland, Hancock, and Penobscot Counties. Records. In August, 1899, a female was shot at Falmouth, Cumber- land County, and is now in the collection of Walter Rich. On August 8, 1939, at Corinna Stream, Penobscot County, Howard Mendall watched three King Rails for nearly an hour, at times at distances of less than 15 feet. On September 4, 1893, Rich shot one at Falmouth, which is now in his collection (Rich), and on September 19, 1895, he shot another there (Brock, 1896a), which is in the Brock collection in the Portland Society of Natural History. On September 22, 1916, John Whitney shot one in Falmouth (Norton). On October 8, 1881, Rogers shot one at Scarborough (N. C. Brown, 1882f : 29), which Smith (1882-83: 124) erroneously stated was shot on October 1; it is now in the collection of the Portland Society of Natural History. E. N. Atherton shot a young male on October 14, 1918, at Scarborough, and had the bird mounted. A male was shot on November 22, 1909, at Bucksport, Hancock County, and was preserved (C. L. Phillips, 1919). A male, shot on December 17, 1899, at Falmouth, was obtained by Brock (1902b). Remarks. Four large rails, shot in the vicinity of Portland, were not preserved or examined by an ornithologist. One was shot about Sep- tember, 1864, and another was taken on October 17, 1866, in Falmouth. Samuel Hanson, who shot the latter, stated that he saw two others in the game-bag of a local sportsman at about the same time. These four birds were listed as Clapper Rails by N. C. Brown (1879: 108), the present species not having been recorded from the state. Later, however, he (1907) appeared to lean toward the belief that the birds had been King Rails. Although this seems probable, their identity cannot now be established. The Falmouth records of Rich for September 19, 1895 and August, 1899, and of Brock for December 17, 1899, were cited wrongly by Knight (1908b: 138). Northern Clapper Rail Rallus longirostris crepitans Gmelin Four records, three being for specimens. One was shot in 1874 at Sabattus Pond, Androscoggin County, and preserved in the collection 184 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology of J. Y. Stanton (Smith, 1882-83: 124). This collection is now at Bates College in Lewiston. One was shot the last week of December, 1875, at York, York County, and reported by "E." in a journal called Country, issue of February 14, 1878; this specimen was preserved by Mr. Vickery of Lynn, Massachusetts (N. C. Brown, 1879: 108). Spinney (1902b: 44-45) recorded, for 1900: "October 12. I came into possession of the Clapper Rail, the bird being taken at Popham Beach [Sagadahoc County], Me. It was found in a marsh, and in a few days I also saw another at the same place, which I crippled. Although I had a dog with me and saw where the bird lit down (it flying some distance after being shot at) I or the dog was unable to find it, although I spent an hour searching for it." The specimen obtained is now in the State Museum at Augusta, where Norton examined it. Remarks. Smith (1882-83 : 124) stated that this bird had been taken "at various times on the coast," but the above instances are the only certain ones at hand. See Remarks under King Rail for certain supposed Clapper Rail records cited by N. C. Brown (1879: 108). Northern Virginia Rail Rallus limicola limicola Vieillot Summer resident, uncommon throughout most of the state; transient in spring and fall in unknown numbers (probably uncommon). Spring. Whereas Knight (1908b: 140) stated that the first birds arrived in late April, the earliest specific record is for a male shot on May 2, 1911, at Scarborough (Norton). Fall. Migration is known to be under way by September 17, but probably begins earlier. Generally the last birds have departed by about October 25. Several were seen at Bath, and one caught in Phippsburg, both in Sagadahoc County, on November 10 or 11, 1883 (C. H. Greenleaf). Breeding. The nest is made of coarse grasses or other marsh vege- tation, and usually situated in a hummock or a clump of vegetation in shallow water or in a damp situation. Egg data are: ten on June 10, 1947, at Davis Pond in Eddington, Penobscot County, and seven on June 12, 1945, near the Pennamaquan River, Pembroke, Washing- ton County (J. Gashwiler) ; seven, slightly incubated, on June 14, 1939, near Bangor (Eckstorm); eight on June 22, 1940, at East Corinth, Penobscot County (H. Briggs) ; nine fresh on July 3, 1946, at Frankfort, Waldo County (Harris); and eight on July 11, 1947, at Magurrewock Marsh, Calais (J. Gashwiler). In Quebec, Mousley (1940: 89) found incubation to be 18 to 19 days. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 185 Dates for young in Maine are: at least six small ones with adults in June, 1932, at Bath (Spinney); adult with one young the last week in June, 1933, at Harpswell, Cumberland County (H. T. Pulsifer); adult with one chick and one or two adults together with four chicks, July 3 to 5, 1947, at Scarborough (Webb in Dana, 1948a: 9); two adults with about 20 young on August 2, 1929, at Portland (Mrs. L. R. Brown); five newly hatched chicks and two infertile eggs on August 5, 1896, at Hartland, Somerset County (Knight, 1897d: 41); and downy young in August, 1893, at Fryeburg, Oxford County (Mead in Knight, ibid.)- There are less definite reports for several other localities. The young leave the nest soon after hatching; the fledging period apparently is unrecorded. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. This bird is found mostly in large marshes, often where there are extensive areas of cattails, and also quite frequently in rather small marshy places. Remarks. There are no records of occurrence in Aroostook, Pisca- taquis, and York Counties. Two melanistic examples of this rail have been taken near Portland. Sora Porzana Carolina (Linnaeus) Summer resident, rather rare at scattered points throughout most of the state but perhaps fairly common in parts of eastern Washington County; transient in spring and fall, more common and widespread at the latter season. Spring. This bird arrives in "late April" (Knight, 1908b: 141), or the first week in May. An unusual record is for a bird caught and banded on March 17, 1937, at Otter Creek on Mt. Desert Island, by Mrs. E. A. Anthony (Tyson and Bond, 1941: 58). The next earliest record is for one found dead on May 3, 1938, near Calais, by Mendall. Data are lacking to indicate the duration of the spring migration. Fall. A bird, presumed to have been a migrant, was seen as early as September 5, 1894, at Seguin' (Spinney). Migration reaches its peak in late September and the first ten days in October and, usually, the species has departed by October 26. Several were shot on No- vember 1, 1927, in Bowdoinham at Merrymeeting Bay (Haven). Island occurrences of interest are for offshore Monhegan on September 12, 1918 (Dewis, 1919: 37, 41), and October 20 and 22 of the same year (Wentworth in Jenney, 1919: 26). Breeding. Outside of Maine, nests are reported as usually in fresh water marshes, and are raised above the ground or water's surface, 186 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology often on a hummock, being supported by grasses and other vegetation. Maine nesting data are: four eggs on May 30 and 13 in the clutch on June 15, 1946, a young bird just leaving a nest on June 19, 1946, and five eggs in a nest on July 11, 1947, all in Magurrewock Marsh, Calais (J. Gashwiler); five eggs on July 22, 1894, near Palmyra, Somerset County (Knight, 1908b: 142); "eggs" on July 27 of unstated year and locality (G. M. Allen, 1909: 62); and "eggs" taken near Bangor in July, 1898 (Knight, 1898c). In Michigan, the incubation period was found to vary from 16 to 19 days (Walkinshaw, 1940: 161). The fledging period apparently is unrecorded. Probably a single brood is raised yearly. Ecology. In the breeding season, this is a bird of fresh or brackish water marshes and, in migration, also an inhabitant of salt water • marshes. Probably the most extensive breeding habitat is in marshes in Washington County where Boardman (in Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 1: 372), a half century ago, reported it to be "much more common" than the Virginia Rail. Mendall is of the opinion that both species now are present there as breeders in about equal numbers. Remarks. Although this bird probably occurs in suitable habitat throughout the state, records are lacking for Franklin, Kennebec, and Piscataquis Counties. In the fall, fairly large numbers concentrate at Merrymeeting Bay and in the salt water marshes of Cumberland County. The best time to observe these concentrations is during a full moon tide in late September or early October. During migration, these rails often are picked up by roadsides and even on city streets, after having flown into some object during the night. Northern Yellow Rail Coturnicops noveboracensis noveboracensis (Gmelin) Status not well known except rare in fall in Washington, Penobscot, Knox, Lincoln, and York Counties, and occurring regularly but in variable numbers in Cumberland. Spring. No definite records. (See Remarks.) Fall. The earliest fall record is for September 19, 1910, at Falmouth, Cumberland County (Norton). For the Scarborough and Portland region, N. C. Brown (18S2f : 30) referred to this bird as "generally rare," but "occasionally quite common," and occurring as late as the "middle of November," 1876. A male was shot on November 14, 1921, at Falmouth (Haven). One, fat and apparently in healthy condition, was shot on December 20, 1883, at Biddeford, York County (Smith). PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 187 Flight years. For 1881, Smith (1882-83: 124) stated that "numerous" Yellow Rails were shot in the vicinity of Portland in the fall. For 1905, in the Portland region, Brownson (1905d) stated that in the fall, "the little Yellow Rail, usually so rare, has been here in unusual numbers." Remarks. G. M. Allen (1909: 63) noted "May 31" for spring oc- currence, but this cannot be accepted unquestioningly, for apparently it was based on rails heard on that date in 1902, at Orono and Hermon bogs in Penobscot County, as reported by Swain (1902b: 41, 42). As a matter of fact, Knight, who was a member of the party, did not include this incident as a record in any of his published writings. Eckstorm told Mendall that the species once nested at Magurrewock Marsh, Calais. This was prior to 1935 and probably based on young birds rather than eggs, but no details are available now. For the same region, Knight (1908b: 143) wrote: "Mr. Boardman found it nesting in Washington County, the nest being placed on the ground in similar situations to that of the Sora." Knight probably learned this directly from Boardman in correspondence. Mention of occurrence in the breeding season in Maine, in the 1931 A. 0. U. Check-List, undoubtedly was based on this citation. Squires (1945: 13) stated that the Boardman set of eggs was "the only set of Yellow Rail eggs ever found" in New Brunswick. A letter of February 27, 1948 from Squires states that Boardman found a set of five eggs on September 10, 1881, in a meadow at Milltown, New Brunswick, and that these fit quite well the description of eggs given by Terrill (1943: 174) and the measurements given by Forbush (1925: 360), but that the markings "seem to be more widespread than sug- gested by Bent (1926: 320) or Terrill (1943: 174)." So late a date for eggs certainly is unusual. [Since this was written, Bond wrote to me that he saw these eggs in 1948 and doubts that they are correctly identified; he intends to examine them again.] Black Rail Laterallus jamaicensis (Gmelin) Hypothetical. A black rail, never identified, was caught by a dog on October 4, 1881, at Scarborough. Some writers have made it appear that the bird was shot and that it was recorded as a Black Rail. The original report by Smith (1882-83: 124) was as follows: "Upon the fourth of October, while my friends, Jonas Hamilton and Alpheus G. Rogers, of this city [Portland], were shooting at Scarborough, Mr. Hamilton's setter dog brought to him, alive and unhurt, a black rail. 188 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology The bird was probably of the species Porzana jamaicensis. Both gentlemen have a familiar knowledge of our common species of rails, and especially noted that this bird differed from the 'sora' or Carolina rail and the yellow rail in form as well as in plumage. Unfortunately the specimen was not preserved, and it may possibly have been an instance of melanism of the young yellow rail." Corn Crake Crez crez (Linnaeus) One record. A bird was shot on October 14, 1889, in the Dyke marsh at the mouth of the Presumpscot River, Falmouth, Cumberland County (Brock in Webster, 1890b: 30; Brock, 1896c). This specimen is now part of the Brock collection in the Portland Society of Natural History. Another bird, shot at the same time but too mutilated to save, was identified as this species by the gunner who shot it (Brock, 1896c). Purple Gallinule Porphyrula martinica (Linnaeus) Rare visitant or transient in spring (late March to late April) and fall (late September to December 17), usually near the coast; 13 known occurrences. Spring. Mrs. E. A. Anthony has in her collection a specimen that was captured alive, between March 19 and 25, 1941, at Southwest Harbor on Mt. Desert Island; a male was taken on April 2, 1898, at Eastport, Washington County (Forbush, 1925:365); one was taken on April 11, 1897, at South Lewiston, Androscoggin County (Farrar in Knight, 1897d:42; Powers, 1897h); one was found dead at Bar Harbor, Mt. Desert Island, by F. Leach (Tyson and Bond, 1941: 58), the date being April 18, 1928 (Mrs. E. A. Anthony); and an adult bird was found exhausted in late April, 1929, at Warren, Knox County {Kennebec Journal, April 26, 1929). Fall. One was taken in late summer, 1869 or earlier, near Calais (Boardman, 1869c; Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 1: 385); a male was captured alive, the latter part of September, 1877, at Boothbay, Lincoln County, and it later escaped (Purdie, 1880); a male was shot on October 15, 1925, at Abagadasset Point, Merrymeeting Bay (Walcb, 1926: 17); a young bird was seen at very close range on October 21 and 22, 1941, at Merrymeeting Bay (O. Lothrop); an PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 189 immature bird was shot on October 28, 1924, at Dresden, Lincoln County (Norton) ; an immature male was taken a few days prior to November 7, 1899, at Winter Harbor, Hancock County, and received, via express, on that date at Seguin (Swain, 1900c; Spinney, 1902b: 45) [several times this specimen has been cited as taken at the latter place or on the date mentioned]; one was caught by a cat on December 17, 1906, at Farmingdale, Kennebec County (Powers, 1907: 52). Remarks. An undated record is for an immature bird caught by a cat in the late 1870's at Nortons Island, St. George, Knox County; this was the basis for listing by Rackliff (in Knight, 1897d : 42) of rare Knox County occurrence. Florida Gallinule Gallinula chloropus cachinnans Bangs Visitant or transient, rare in spring and fall, usually near the coast; two summer records, one of breeding. Spring. One was seen on May 3, 1925, at Machias, Washington County (F. Kilburn); one was shot on May 5, 1883, at East Sullivan, Hancock County (Smith in Knight, 1908b: 145); one was taken in the spring of 1871, "near Calais" (Boardman, 1871c); and one taken in the spring of 1903, at Falmouth, Cumberland County (Lord in Knight, 1908b: 145). Fall. Records include: in 1894, one immature male taken on Sep- tember 20, and another on the 30th, at Falmouth (Brock, 1896d); one shot at the same place on October 12, 1929 (Norton); one shot on October 15, 1907, at Scarborough (Norton, 1908a: 81) [cited as "Portland" by W. Cooke, 1914:43]; an immature female shot on October 15, 1927, at Merrymeeting Bay (Haven, 1927: 157); one shot the "middle of October," 1936, at Scarborough (E. Monroe); one shot on October 22, and another on the 26th, 1921, at Merrymeeting Bay (Walch, 1926 : 17) ; and one shot on October 26, 1936, at Cape Elizabeth (Norton). Breeding and summer. Outside of Maine, the nest is reported as being a hollow in a platform of vegetation, aground or nearly afloat, in fresh water marshes. A. Allen (1931) made the following obser- vations in New York: clutches consist of 9 to 14 eggs; incubation begins before the clutch is completed, the period being 21 days; a male led the young back to the nest to be brooded before the last egg hatched, but at other times he built little platforms of rushes on which to brood them himself; and in seven to eight weeks, the chicks were in full juvenal plumage and were capable of long flights. The Maine breeding record is for an adult with a brood of young, 190 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology seen by Mendall in the summer of 1938, at a tributary of Sebasticook Lake in Newport, Penobscot County. A male in nuptial plumage was shot on June 5, 1909, at Falmouth (Norton). Ecology. This bird usually is seen near or among flags and sedges about the margins of ponds and streams. Remarks. Less definite records than those already cited are : mention as a rare migrant in Androscoggin County by Johnson (in Knight, 1897d: 43) and Miss Miller (1918: 71) ; and mention of specimens from Penobscot County occasionally being brought into taxidermy shops (Knight, 1908b: 145). In the digestive tract of the female taken on October 15, 1907, at Scarborough, were four snails (Planorbis campanulatus) and a few seeds (Norton, 1908a: 81). Northern American Coot Fulica americana qmericana Gmelin Transient, rare in spring and rather common in fall, occurring mostly near the coast; rare in summer (may breed) and winter. Spring. Of the few occurrences noted at this season, the earliest is for a bird caught alive on March 26, 1926, in Portland Harbor (Norton) and the latest is for April 14, 1903, at Avon, Franklin County (Sweet, 1905a: 42). (Also see Remarks.) Fall. One was seen on August 14, 1938, in Muscongus Bay (Cruick- shank). In late September and throughout October, birds migrate through the state. Individuals or small groups stop at any suitable place along the way, but only are found concentrating in numbers at favorable feeding places, especially near the coast. Some birds linger until the middle of November or even later. Summer. Sweet (in Brownson, 1909: 82) reported this species on June 2, 1908, at Avon. It has occurred about June 30 in 1935 and 1936, near Jackman, Somerset County (A. R. Phillips). In a letter of February 5, 1947, Cruickshank stated that this species "probably breeds" at Bath, Sagadahoc County, having been seen there all summer. Winter. There are three occurrences in Cumberland County: one seen on December 11, 1938, in the Dunstan River at Scarborough (Norton); one, apparently healthy, seen on January 22, 1921, at Falmouth (J. Whitney); and one caught alive in slush ice by small boys on February 1, 1924, in Back Cove, Portland, and brought to Norton who released it. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 191 Ecology. Migrant birds in Maine usually are found in fresh water ponds that are rich in aquatic vegetation and near salt water. The brackish waters of Merrymeeting Bay, with its extensive wild rice beds, are a noted gathering place in fall. Remarks. Records clearly indicate that this bird formerly was much more numerous in Maine than at present. Audubon (1835: 293) wrote that some traveling lumbermen assured him that "the Coot breeds in numbers in the lakes lying between Mars Hill [Aroostook County] in Maine and the St. Lawrence River." He expressed doubt, however, as to the authenticity of these reports. Reported occurrences of "American Coot" at Castine, Hancock County, for March 23, 1904 (Ridley in Sweet, 1905c: 61) and May 13, 1905 (Ridley in Sweet, 1906b: 35) probably refer to scoters. The extreme spring dates given by G. M. Allen (1909: 65) appear to have been based upon these reports. Family HAEMATOPODIDAE Eastern American Oyster-catcher Haematopus palliatus palliatus Temminck Former transient; no recent certain records. Audubon (1835: 181) stated: "It seems scarcer between Long Island and Portland in Maine, where you again see it, and whence it occurs all the way to Labrador, in which country I found that several were breeding in the month of July." He further stated (p. 182) : "On the coast of Labrador, and in the Bay of Fundy, it lays its eggs on the bare rocks." T. M. Brewer (1875: 445) recorded the species as rare in Maine, undoubtedly on the basis of Audubon's writings. Remarks. Norton (1898b) pointed out that Audubon's first-hand observations indicated that he probably did see the bird near Portland, as well as farther northeastward. He also suggested that this con- spicuous bird could have been extirpated from Labrador by fishermen in the period from Audubon's visit to 1860, during which time few or no ornithologists of note recorded observations on the birds of that region. A game warden described a bird seen in October, 1936, on mudflats near Belfast, Waldo County, that was probably an Oyster-catcher (Mendall). The specimen obtained by Boardman, and reported by Smith (1882-83: 44) as shot "near Eastport," was taken on Grand Manan, New Brunswick (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884, 1: 113). 192 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Family CHARADRIIDAE Lapwing Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus) One specimen of this Old World species, in the collection of the Boston Society of Natural History, was taken on December 21 or 22, 1927, on the ice at Square Lake, Sinclair, in the township of St. Agatha, Aroostook County (W. S. Brooks, 1928; J. L. Peters, 1929: 10). 'Remarks. This bird was one of the large number of stragglers that occurred in northeastern North America in December, 1927. Extralimital records are for three birds taken at this time, and one taken on January 6, 1928, in the Grand Manan archipelago, as recorded by Pettingill (1939a: 335). Eastern Piping Plover Charadrius melodus melodus Ord Summer resident, common on sandy beaches from Kittery, York County to Cape Elizabeth, on beaches in Phippsburg and Georgetown in Sagadahoc County, and seen rarely eastward; transient in spring and fall, small flocks being noted in coastal Sagadahoc, Cumberland, and York Counties, and individuals or very small groups rarely farther eastward. Spring. Usually this species has not been noted until April 15 or later, but there are these earlier dates: two seen on March 22, 1938, at Scarborough (G. Reeves); one seen there on March 25, 1922 (C. Pangburn); and one seen on April 13, 1942, at Drakes Island, Wells, York County (G. Dunthorne). Fall. Flocking begins by the first week in August and migration is in evidence by the middle of the month. I find no records after Sep- tember 20, except for a single bird seen by Norton on October 2, 1940, at Scarborough. Breeding. The nest, a shallow depression on a sandy beach, is lined, more or less, with pieces of sea shells and small pebbles. On Long Island, Wilcox (1939) found that eggs are laid on alternate days until the clutch of four is completed, and that incubation, mostly by the female, requires 26 to 30 days. The earliest Maine date is for two sets of four found on May 4, 1946, at Scarborough (G. Webb). Data at hand for about 24 sets indicate that they were completed from early May to early June. Hatching dates range from May 31 to June 27, with the one exception of a set of four I found hatching on July 1, 1938, at Popham Beach, Phippsburg, Sagadahoc County. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 193 On Long Island, Wilcox found that the young did not move more than about 400 feet from the nest up to the time they were able to fly at the age of about 30 to 35 days. At Scarborough, a young bird able to fly on June 19, 1941 (Norton) would indicate an earlier laying and hatching date than any given above. One brood is raised yearly. Ecology. This bird is found chiefly on sandy beaches, and rarely where the terrain is somewhat rocky. Nests are on the open beach, well back from the water's edge, and occasionally among clumps of beach grass. Remarks. In the 1890's, this bird was nearly extirpated from our beaches, but it has again increased, perhaps now approaching its former numbers. It has bred since 1911 at Scarborough, but only recently has its breeding in the state received any publicity. In the last few years there have been reports of its occurrence in summer on Penobscot Bay islands. Eventually, perhaps, it will be found breeding on small sandy spots on the coast or islands of eastern Maine — if such spots are not disturbed too often by picnickers. In early August, 1938, I saw 20 birds in a flock at Popham Beach; flocks of similar size are seen quite regularly on beaches in southwestern Maine at about this season and later. Of this bird's status at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, Boardman (1862: 128) wrote: "Summer visitant. Abundant. Breeds on islands in the middle of June." Whereas it may have bred here occasionally, the implication of abundance in such unsuitable habitat is indeed questionable. Semipalmated Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula semipalmatus Bonaparte Transient, common coastwise in spring and numerous in fall, and uncommon though regular inland at the latter season; rare non- breeding summer resident. Spring. This plover usually arrives after May 20, rarely being present by May 10, and once reported, in Bent (1929: 226), for May 5 at Saco, York County. Most birds have departed by June 11, with later records as follows: one seen on June 18, 1919, at Scarborough (Norton); four seen on June 22, 1896, at Saddleback Ledge, Hancock County (Knight, 1897d: 52) ; and one seen on June 22, 1909, at Upton, Oxford County (Brewster, 1925: 275). Fall. This bird has been seen from July 25 to 31 in eight different years, and generally is noted by August 4. It is common to numerous from August 12 to about September 20 along the coast, with decreasing numbers seen thereafter to October 13. Later records are: five seen 194 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology on October 19, 1940, at Wells, York County (Norton); one seen on October 20, 1940, on Mt. Desert Island (Eckstorm); one seen on October 22, 1927, at Cape Elizabeth, and two on the 26th at Portland (Norton); two seen on November 5, 1911, at Scarborough (Pillsbury); and one shot on November 11, 1912, at Scarborough, and seen in the flesh by Norton. Summer. Since it is impossible to distinguish sharply between summer and other seasons' occurrences, I here include only those from July 8 to 22, as follows: "small numbers" seen on July 8, 1920, at Popham Beach, Sagadahoc County, and one seen on July 14, 1927, at Milbridge, Washington County (Norton); one seen on July 15 and 18, 1939, at Scarborough (Mrs. E. Dodge); July 19 of unstated year in the Umbagog region [? Me. or N. H. part] (Brewster, 1925: 273); and two or three seen on July 22, 1935, at Back Cove in Portland (Rich). Ecology. This bird is found most frequently on mudflats between the tide lines, and often on sea beaches and mud banks of streams and rivers inland. It is especially attracted to silt-covered areas of mud- flats, where small nemertean worms abound. Remarks. This species has not yet recovered completely in numbers from the several decades of unrestricted gunning. Spring and early fall transients are in nuptial plumage. In August, during periods of active feeding, considerable display may be seen. With head lowered, wings raised, tail spread, and uttering a 'chuckling' note, one bird will run toward another. The second bird usually retreats, but may rarely respond by posturing in a similar manner. The display ends quickly and feeding is resumed. The number of nuptial-plumaged birds drops markedly about the first of September, and young in first fall plumage increase for the next two or three weeks. Boardman (1903:309) wrote that this bird was "Common in summer" about the mouth of the Bay of Fundy. Smith (1882-83: 44) gave the following New Brunswick data: "I have procured an egg of this species on an island in the Bay of Fundy, but it is a very unusual occurrence to find the bird breeding so far south as that, and none are known to breed in Maine." Wilson's Thick-billed Plover Charadrius wilsonia wilsonia Ord Hypothetical. The A. 0. U. Check-List (1931:105) includes oc- currence as "Casual north to Nova Scotia and New England." There is an unconfirmed report of one seen in September, 1933, at Old PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 195 Orchard Beach, York County, by W. Deane. There are Nova Scotia, Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut records. Northern Killdeer Charadrius vociferus vociferus Linnaeus Summer resident, fairly common in coastal counties to Sagadahoc, with diminishing numbers into Hancock, and, inland, rather common to eastern Penobscot and northern Aroostook Counties; two winter occurrences, one a storm incursion. Spring. This bird arrives in southwestern counties from March 26 to about April 7. One seen on March 9, 1946, at Georgetown, Saga- dahoc County (W. Taber), probably had been driven there by a southeast gale of some two weeks earlier. Other early dates are: one seen on March 18, 1907, at Scarborough (Pillsbury), and one on March 19, 1933, at Portland (G. Reeves). Inland, three birds were seen as early as March 27, 1945, at Glenburn, Penobscot County (Mendall), four on April 3, 1946, at Brewer (Weston), and the earliest Aroostook County date is April 29, 1934, at Presque Isle (Chamberlain, 1935: 316). Migration continues at least into the last week in April in Cumberland County. Fall. The Killdeer departs in September and early October. Late records are: about 50 seen on October 12, 1940, at Corinna Stream, Penobscot County (Mendall); one seen on October 16, 1927, at Scarborough (Norton); two seen on October 24, 1905, at Avon, Franklin County (Sweet, 1907: 68) ; and six seen on November 8, 1941, at Corinna Stream (Mendall). Breeding. Nesting sites in Maine include old fields, hayfields, golf courses, potato fields and gardens, airfields, places where cinders have been spread, between abandoned railroad tracks, and on outcrops of gravel. The eggs (all records are for four) are laid in a slight depression to which a few pebbles or pieces of debris have been added. Four eggs, about half incubated, were found as early as May 3, 1941, at Hermon, Penobscot County (Eckstorm), four on May 8, 1942, at Monmouth, Kennebec County (Mrs. C. Norton), and four on May 10, 1937, at Cape Elizabeth (Norton). The latest date for unhatched eggs is June 18, 1928, at Lewiston, Androscoggin County (Norton). In Michigan, the incubation period has been found to vary from 24 to 26 days (Nickell, 1943: 28). Both sexes incubate. The fact that newly hatched young were found on May 12, 1941, by C. Fobes at Portland, may indicate earlier laying than for any of the clutches noted above. The age of attaining flight is unknown, but many young 196 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology are flying by July 20. Nickell (ibid.) reported adults attending the brood for periods up to nearly six weeks. In Maine, it is likely that two broods occasionally are raised yearly. Winter. On November 25, 1888, in the wake of a violent northerly storm, Killdeers began to occur on the coast, increasing in numbers the next few days until hundreds were present. This unusual flight was noted from the Isles of Shoals and points eastward to Grand Manan, the birds being seen at many lighthouses along the coast. Their numbers decreased steadily through December, the last certain Maine record being for three birds shot on December 25 at Cape Elizabeth. They lingered at the Isles of Shoals until the last week in February. Details of this unique flight were related by N. C. Brown (1889 and 1911a), Chadbourne (1889), and Torrey (1889). A single bird was shot on January 20, 1912, at Great Chebeague Island in Casco Bay (Norton). Ecology. The Killdeer generally is found in dry gravelly places or where the grass is short. In migration, it is found often on fairly dry mud about inland watercourses, and occasionally on flats and beaches about salt water. Remarks. This bird probably was a rare visitant in colonial days. Even later, Williamson (1832: 147) stated that it was not seen often, and Audubon (1835: 192) reported that few were seen in Maine. Verrill (1862a) did not record it at Norway, nor did Hamlin (1865) at Waterville. Smith (1882-83: 44) recorded only 17 Killdeers taken in the Portland-Scarborough region from 1849 to 1870. Up to 1884, only a few individuals had been seen in fall in the Calais region, as reported by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884, 1: 149). In 1897, Hardy (in Knight, 1897d: 52) reported occurrence about Brewer "forty years ago." Knight (ibid.; 1908b: 188-189) considered it a "very rare," but definitely not an "accidental," migrant and listed it for seven counties. Between 1895 and 1900, Norton saw only three or four birds at Westbrook, Cumberland County, these occurring in migrations. A definite increase began about 1907 and has continued steadily to the present. The bird now is common in summer at localities in much of western, central, and northern Maine, but numbers decrease coastwise from eastern Sagadahoc County eastward so that there are few Washington County records. Lack of records for some suitable inland areas appears to be due to lack of observers. On October 5, 1918, Norton received a juvenal male, with down still adhering to the rectrices, shot that day at Scarborough. There were no actual nesting records, however, until about ten years later. By 1933, the species had nested as far as Cape Rosier, Hancock County, and it now may be expected to breed wherever found in summer. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 197 During the storm flight of 1888, S. B. Angell, while at a Coast Guard station on Cape P21izabeth, shot about 75 of these birds and sold them at a Portland market for 30 cents per pair (Norton). Eastern American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica dominica (Muller) Fall transient, rare coastwise. One recent inland record. Occurrence. Most records are for August 20 to October 22. In former years when the species was plentiful, the main wave of mi- gration occurred in late August, with sometimes a smaller one about the middle of September. The earliest record is August 12, 1906, at "Portland" [probably Scarborough] (in Brownson, 1907c: 37). Late records are: October 26 of unstated year in the Umbagog region [? Me. or N. H. part] (Brewster, 1925: 269); one shot on November 2, 1875, and two on November 8, 1867, at Scarborough (Rogers); another shot there on November 15, 1907 (Brownson, 1907f: 108); and another (? cripple) on December 1, 1882 (N. C. Brown). Flight years. "There was a remarkable flight of Golden Plovers through Maine during the last of August and the first part of Sep- tember, 1853, such as has never since been witnessed here, and which resembled a flight of [Passenger] pigeons. For days the air was clouded with the incessant passage of flocks of these birds, and great numbers were killed" (Smith, 1882-83:44). In 1870, "many" came to Scarborough during a storm, about September 12, and all left as soon as the weather cleared (Smith); in 1877, there were "enormous" flocks on the upper Dunstan marshes at Scarborough from late August to early October (N. C. Brown); and in 1878, a "great many" came to Scarborough with the great flight of Eskimo Curlews in the evening of August 25 (Smith). Remarks. In fall, the main migration route of this plover extends from Nova Scotia southward over the Atlantic to the Lesser Antilles. Until about 1880, flocks of 20 to 60 birds were regularly common at Scarborough, and rarely, flocks containing up to 200 birds were seen there (N. C. Brown). Flight years were occasions when unusual numbers deviated from their normal route and reached our coast. Considering the number of scattered inland occurrences, as given by Knight (1897d: 52; 1908b: 187) and Brewster (1925: 269-272), it ap- pears that some of these birds took an overland route, just as a small number of several other shorebird species do. On October 9, 1948, about six were seen inland at Graham Lake, Hancock County, by Weston. 198 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology In former years, this plover was seen most often on dry uplands near the coast, in cut-over fields and the drier parts of marshes, although it by no means avoided beaches and shores. Flocks were seen often on grassy islands. The Eskimo Curlew was the most common associate, with the Black-bellied Plover ranking second. In the early 1850's, these birds sold in Portland for 25 cents a dozen, and many spoiled (Manasseh Smith). Not only was this plover a tasty table bird, but also unwary enough to make an easy target. From 1842 to 1854, Loring shot 705 Golden Plovers at Scarborough, and between 1891 and 1912, Pillsbury shot only 150 there, his largest bag being 15 in 1895. Numbers decreased steadily and the birds were scarce for several decades before shooting was legally ended in 1926. Even under protection, however, recovery has been very slight. Western American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin) One specimen, an adult female shot on September 11, 1911, at Scarborough, is in the Norton collection (Norton, 1916: 381), now in the Portland Society of Natural History. Remarks. I failed to find this specimen in a hurried search in early July, 1947, but this is not surprising, for the birdskin collection is, at present, in a disorganized state. In his unpublished notes, Norton listed the measurements, and these are very close to average for adult females, as given by Ridgway; the color notes also fit this race well. Dr. Jonathan Dwight concurred with Norton as to the identity of the specimen. This record was not cited by Forbush, nor in the 1931 A.O.U. Check-List. It is interesting to note that recently Rand (1947a: 283) reported three specimens of this race from Greenland. Black-bellied Plover Squatarola squatarola (Linnaeus) Transient, common coastwise in spring and fall, and occasional inland at the latter season; rare in summer. Spring. This plover arrives in southwestern counties May 14 to 19, and leaves about June 1, with occasional individuals or small flocks lingering until June 11. Early records are for a female shot on May 9, 1882, in the Portland-Scarborough region (N. C. Brown, 1882f : 24), and about a dozen birds seen on May 10, 1912, at Scarborough PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 199 (Pillsbury). In 1868, five lingered at Scarborough until June 14, when one was shot, and one was seen on June 16 and 17 (Smith). Fall. Birds arrive rarely by July 26, and are common from August 14 to about October 24. Migration is most noticeable from late August through September. Some birds have lingered infrequently until October 31. Late occurrences are: about 30 birds in two flocks on November 11, 1938, at Scarborough (Norton); three seen on No- vember 11, 1942, at Scarborough (Norton); and 11 seen on November 12, 1938, at Georgetown, Sagadahoc County (R. Stackpole, W. Taber). Flight years. In 1911, the number present at Scarborough was "unusually large" on May 27 (Pillsbury), and in 1932, there was an "unusually large flight in the Casco Bay region" on May 27 (J. R. Wallace) . Summer. Occurrences at this season are: June 24, 1895, on Western Egg Rock in Muscongus Bay (Norton in Knight, 1897d: 51); June 20 and July 5, 1938, in Muscongus Bay (Cruickshank) ; and, on July 9, 1936, a flock of six seen at Little Green Island, off western Penobscot Bay, and on July 15, 1941, one at Pine Point, Scarborough (Norton). Ecology. This bird, our most common large plover, usually is found on mudflats and in very shallow pools in marshes. Though generally remaining close to salt water, it occasionally resorts to uplands. When occurring well inland, it is found in marshes and on bars or mudflats along rivers and in ponds or lakes. It is both gregarious and social, mingling with other large shorebirds. Remarks. During the 1880's and 1890's Brewster (1925: 268-269) found this bird to be a "rather common transient" in fall in the Umbagog region. It seems to have been rare elsewhere in the interior, or, at least, few records have survived. Now that the species is in- creasing in numbers, it is not surprising that small flocks are reported occasionally from inland localities. The Black-bellied Plover, being more wary and traveling in smaller flocks, was not as favorable a target as the Golden Plover. It has never equalled the latter 's former abundance at Scarborough. Between 1842 and 1854, Loring shot 294 of these birds there, and from 1891 to 1912, Pillsbury shot 369, his largest bags being 39 in 1907 and 36 each in 1910 and 1912. Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres morinella (Linnaeus) Transient, in spring, fairly common in southwestern coastal areas but diminishing to rather rare east of Penobscot Bay, and in fall, common in eastern waters, numerous to abundant westward, and rare inland. 200 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Spring. Although a few transients arrive about May 18, most birds are seen from May 22 to June 8, and a few occasionally linger some days later. The earliest date is for a bird seen on May 14, 1938, at Scarborough, and the latest for one seen on June 15, 1927, at Cape Elizabeth (Norton). Fall. These birds first appear about July 27 and are abundant at suitable localities from August 5 to the end of the month, with rapidly decreasing numbers present to September 11. Although N. C. Brown (1882f : 24) stated that the "old birds" returned about mid-July, the earliest record I have at hand is for a bird seen by Norton on July 23, 1908, in "Washington County." Late dates are: three seen on September 15, 1897, at Seguin (Spinney); and, "about half a dozen" seen on September 18, 1938, at York Beach, York County, and an immature bird shot on October 29, 1884, near Hay Ledge, off St. George, Knox County (Norton). Inland, for the Umbagog region, Brewster (1925: 275) gave three records of which the earliest, for two birds shot on August 27, 1896, and the latest, for one shot on Sep- tember 8, 1880, are for Oxford County. Ecology. This gregarious species is chiefly a bird of the outer rocks and beaches, where it feeds between the tide lines, and often is seen resting in compact flocks above high tide line. Remarks. This bird seems not to have suffered heavily by shooting in past decades. The fact that it is not as good a bird for the table compared to many other shorebirds, may have been a factor in its favor during the period of unrestricted gunning. Eventually the species may be found to occur as a non-breeding summer resident. The Turnstone feeds on small mussels (Mytilus edulis) and barnacles (Balanus balanoides) (Norton, 1909f : 440), also on other mollusks and small crustaceans. "It is true that the Turnstone will quickly turn over a shell or pebble with his oddly shaped bill in his search for food, this habit being characteristic and generally known to students of ornithology, but his unique peculiarity of rooting, if I may so term it, is something I have never seen him given credit for by any observer of bird life. I use the word rooting advisedly for his procedure is nothing else (unless you were to call it shoveling) and resembles the modus operandi of the pig when searching for food beneath the surface" (Noble, 1904d: 58). Early reports of breeding in Maine, by Audubon (1838: 31-32) and DeKay (1844: 216), are erroneous. PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 201 Family SCOLOPACIDAE American Woodcock Philohcla minor (Graelin) Summer resident, numerous in Washington and Hancock Counties and common westward, but diminishing to occasional in extreme northwestern and northern Maine; transient, in spring and fall, common to numerous in coastal counties and common in northern Maine; winter resident, occasional in coastal counties and perhaps elsewhere. Spring. Although most migrants usually arrive in early April, in some years, many are noted all along the coast during the last ten days in March. Sizeable migration waves have been noted in the Portland-Scarborough region in different years from March 17 to April 7. There are at hand several March 13 records, apparently for migrating birds, in different years. Mendall and Aldous (1943:43) stated that, in 1939, when weather was especially favorable for these birds, migration began by March 2 and 6 in eastern coastal areas. Transients have been noted at Presque Isle from April 19 on (Chamber- lain), but probably arrive earlier. Migration continues well into April. Fall. There is considerable wandering, probably in search of food, before migration begins. Largest southward movements occur from very early October to about November 10 to 17, the time within this period being dependent on changes in weather. During warm autumns, many large flights have been noted in the first half of November (ibid. 45) . Small flights are sometimes reported in Cumberland County until November 26 or later (Norton), there having been one on No- vember 28, 1883 (Rogers). It even may be that some of the birds seen in early December in coastal counties are migrants rather than winter residents. Breeding. Breeding data in the thorough study done in Washington County by Mendall and Aldous (1943), which greatly adds to the Maine data in Pettingill (1936), are here summarized. A clearing of almost any size in woods or bushes is the ideal 'singing ground' for the male. It should have slight ground cover (grass, weeds, bushes), be level or slightly sloping, and located within 100 yards of the male's diurnal territory and the nesting cover. Preferred nesting sites are in young, open, second growth mixed hardwoods and conifers or hardwood stands, with areas containing alders a second preference. Hardwood stands of beech-birch or beech-birch-maple, while common, are seldom utilized, probably because earthworms are scarce in such areas. 202 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Copulation apparently occurs on the 'singing ground.' The evidence indicates that the species is monogamous. The nest is a shallow de- pression in the soil or litter, generally with no protective cover near it. A few deciduous leaves, conifer needles, small twigs, and blades of grass are added to the cavity in varying amounts, there being more when a nest is in a damp situation. Four eggs ordinarily make a first clutch, the sets of three often found late in the season (June) probably indicating that one or two earlier clutches have been destroyed. An egg is laid daily, and incubation, beginning when the last egg is laid, is by the female and requires 19 to 22 (average 21) days. In eastern Maine, most nesting begins the third week in April and most young hatch from May 11 to 25. [These data agree with all other available data for Maine, April 26 being the average date when clutches are completed throughout.] Young are brooded in the nest for a few hours until they are thoroughly dry, then are led away by the female who takes care of them. The female feeds earthworms to the young before they begin to probe for this food themselves. The young can fly short distances when 14 or 15 days old and, at three weeks, can fly nearly as swiftly and steadily as adults. Nearly full growth is attained in 25 days. A single brood is raised yearly. Winter. The Woodcock has been reported between December 1 and March 1 about once in four years in coastal counties. In one or two instances, birds found in January or February have been reported as enfeebled and probably unable to survive until spring. Norton (1908b) listed some of the older known occurrences. Although he had had reports from several Cumberland County sportsmen that they had seen this species on unrecorded winter dates, he omitted mention of these on the grounds that they were too indefinite. What the Woodcock eats at this season in Maine is unknown. Ecology. The nesting habitat, described above, is resorted to from very early spring into July. In late summer and fall, alder and other lowland hardwood thickets are favored, but the species also occurs in lesser numbers in many other places, including dry wooded uplands. The wintering birds have been found about springs and very shallow water in running brooks. Transients occasionally are seen on offshore islands. This bird is somewhat gregarious during migrations. Remarks. The Woodcock was given legal protection about as early as any bird in Maine. Changes in closed time, as listed in early public laws, were: March 1 to July 1 (1863), February 1 to September 1 (1870), January 1 to July 4 (1874), and December 1 to September 1 (1876). In the 13 years, 1842 to 1854, Loring shot 2,163 Woodcock, probably all in Cumberland County. In the 37 years, 1865 to 1902, Rogers shot PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 203 1,218 birds in the same area, usually 35 to 80 birds a season, except in 1883 when he bagged 104; in 1886, he wrote in his shooting journal: "Woodcock seem to be getting permanently scarce." One year, probably in the early 1870's, Everett Smith bagged 94 birds with 100 shots, July 15 to 19, in Cumberland County. Pillsbury shot only 107 birds in all in the 21 years, 1891 to 1912, but in 1911, E. Eield bagged 124; these Woodcock probably were all shot in Cumberland County, although possibly some in adjacent parts of York. Austin (1885) stated that, 20 years earlier, there were few Woodcock hunters, but that currently there were 40 in Portland and as many more in other parts of Cumberland County. He wrote: "I have heard of 1,100 W r oodcock shot in Cumberland County in 1869, 500 of them by two market gunners, . . Their covers were mostly in Gorham and Standish." The two market gunners may have been S. Skillings and F. Bailey. The former told Norton that, in one season between 1875 and 1885, the two shipped 630 birds by express to Fanueil Hall Market in Boston. Early in the season, birds sold for 50 cents each and dropped to 40 later. (Grouse then brought 35 cents and snipe 20 to 25.) Skillings' biggest daily bag was 22 birds. The two men, using No. 9 shot in muzzle-loading shotguns, would 'work' a cover with the aid of dogs, then return to their buggy and drive to the next cover, hunting from dawn till dusk. Blodgett (1893) reported poaching about Ellsworth, Hancock County, and stated that the birds were bringing a dollar each in the Bar Harbor market. Hackle (1907) reported a bag of 40 birds for two men in one day near Auburn, Androscoggin County. In early 1928, Pillsbury told Norton that there had been better Woodcock shooting in Cumberland County for the preceding five autumns than in the 35 before. The hunting pressure was so great, however, that the general population trend of this species was downward, and continued so until very restricted open seasons (or none at all in some years) had to be imposed to save the remainder of the birds. In the Gulf states, the main winter range of the Woodcock, there were two periods of unusual cold, with snow and sleet, in the winter of 1939-40; a 1940 'singing ground' census on an area in eastern Maine showed a 37.5 per cent decrease from that of the preceding year (Mendall and Aldous, 1943: 162-165). The reader is referred to this paper for information on some large bags in recent years, and for a discussion of the necessary procedures for maintaining a satisfactory Woodcock population. The following data are from their findings (ibid. 13, 15): although there is an overlap in weights of the sexes, those weighing 230 grams (8.2 ounces) or more are females, and those weighing 150 grams (5.4 204 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology ounces) or less are practically always males; birds with bills 72 mm. (2'/i6 inches) or more in length are generally females, and those with bills 64 mm. (2^ inches) or less are nearly always males, though there is an overlap of the sexes in between, with birds having bills 67 to 69 mm. about equally divided as to sex. European Woodcock Scolopax rusticola Linnaeus Erroneous report. The statement of J. A. Allen (1886: 265), that there were "records of its occurrence" in Maine, is not based on any known occurrence or capture. Forbush (1925: 385) found no New England "record" substantiated by a specimen. Wilson's Common Snipe Capella gallinago delicata (Ord) Transient, common in fall and fairly common in spring throughout ; summer resident, probably fairly common in eastern and northern counties, and uncommon on higher elevations of western counties; rare in winter. Spring. This bird has been seen at points from Cumberland to Aroostook County as early as April 14. Occurrences on March 15 and 24 of unstated years at Presque Isle (Chamberlain) might possibly have been for wintering birds. Other early occurrences are: March 21, 1931 (F. Morgan), and March 28, 1878 (Smith), at Scarborough; April 6, 1910, at Cape Elizabeth (Norton); April 7, 1911, at Scarbor- ough (F. S. Walker); and April 11, 1897, at Seguin (Spinney). Mi- gration is still in evidence in southwestern counties to at least May 8. Fall. Although scattered August records for Scarborough may represent summering birds or premigratory wanderers, the number of birds seen there by September 4 would indicate that migration has started by then. In some past years there, snipe shooting has been fairly good by September 12, although the main flight arrives in early October. This bird has occurred as late as October 20, 1918, on offshore Monhegan (Wentworth in Jenney, 1919: 26), and formerly was shot frequently until November 10 at Scarborough. Later dates, all for the Scarborough region, are: one shot on November 11, 1881, and another on November 14, 1876 (Rogers); one seen on November 15 or 16, 1907, another on November 20, 1909, and one shot on November 21 of the same year (Norton) ; and several seen on November 27, 1919 (E. Beal). PALMER: MAINE BIRDS 205 Flight years. Data are very fragmentary, but show that snipe were relatively abundant at Scarborough in the fall in 1868 and 1875 (Rogers), 1921 (C. Phinney), and 1934 (D. McGilvary). There were "very few" at Scarborough in 1866 (Smith). Breeding. Although this bird apparently is fairly common in summer in eastern and northern Maine, and has been seen occasionally even in York and Cumberland Counties, I find only three instances of eggs having been found. L. Clark and Mendall found a nest with four eggs on May 19, 1946, at Calais, in the Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge. It was located in a wet swale bordering Howard Mill Stream, being only two feet from standing water in a pool and 12 yards from the stream, and on a mossy hummock, elevated only an inch above water level. It was shallow and consisted of a little dry grass, and was partly concealed in a clump of Calamagrostis sp., Spiraea latifolia, and Carex sp. About June 1, the nest was destroyed by some predator. The site here described is fairly typical of those reported outside of Maine. The late Walter Clayton found a set of eggs near Lincoln, Penobscot County, but data on these are not at hand. Shells of four eggs that probably had hatched about the last of May were found on June 17, 1948, at Portage Lake, Aroostook County (Mendall). The clutch (four eggs) has been found, in Quebec, to require 20 days' incubation (Mousley, 1939a: 131). The fledging period ap- parently is unrecorded. A single brood is raised yearly. Winter. Occurrences for this season are: one seen on December 7, 1921, at South Portland (C. Phinney) ; near a spring in spruce woods at Brunswick, Cumberland County, on December 15, 1928, when snow had been on the ground for some time, I shot a bird on the wing that I found to be apparently healthy upon skinning it; three or four seen a few days before February 28, 1930, at Fore River, Portland, and one of them caught, being unable to fly, but when liberated the next day, it flew off (F. Isley) ; one found dead on February 28, 1946, at Eliot, York County (S. Hawkins); and one seen on March 5, 1934, and thereafter, near Presque Isle (Chamberlain, 1935: 316). Ecology. The summer habitat is fresh water marshes — even very small ones that are largely grown to clumps of alders — and bogs. During migration, they are found in a variety of places, among which are salt and fresh water marshes, swales and low alders and muddy banks along watercourses, puddles in fields, and, occasionally, even in damp but rather open woods. Remarks. Like the W'oodcock, these birds could not maintain their numbers in the face of heavy gunning. The result was a steady decline in the population for many years. There was a very small flight in the spring of 1941 (Eckstorm, Weston), and in the following autumn, 206 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology for the first time, there was no open season. The species has increased slightly in eastern Maine since 1943, but its numbers are still low (Mendall). Boardman (1869b) wrote that he had observed Snipe to perch in trees when being robbed of eggs or young. For the same region, Bond wrote in a recent letter: "On the Calais marshes I once observed a snipe cackling on the top of a telephone pole. When flushed it flew to the top of a nearby pole. I am certain it had young nearby." In Brewster's (1925: 232-240) many notes on the habits of these birds in the Umbagog region, he described the interesting 'winnowing' courtship flight in autumn. Souther